UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Ralnh  S.    T'A- 


STRUCTURAL  TIMBER 
HAND    BOOK 

ON- 
PACIFIC   COAST   WOODS 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  WEST  COAST  LUMBERMEN'S  ASSOCIATION 

1016  White  Building 

Seattle,  Wash. 


Written  and  Compiled  by 

O.  P.'M.  GOSS,  Assoc.  M.  AM.  Soc.  C.  E. 
Consulting  Engineer  for  the  Association. 

Assisted  by 

CARL  HEINMILLER 
Assistant  Engineer. 


Copyright  1916  by 

THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S    ASSOCIATION 
Price  $1-00 


TA 


INTRODUCTION 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  present  information  relative  to 
structural  timber  which  will  be  useful  to  engineers,  architects, 
and  contractors.  Particular  attention  has  been  given  to  Pacific 
Coast  species. 

There  have  been  published  from  time  to  time  by  the  U.  S. 
Forest  Service  and  other  organizations  data  showing  the  strength 
and  durability  of  Pacific  Coast  timber.  In  writing  this  book  an 
effort  has  been  made  to  collect  such  of  these  data  as  are  up  to 
date  and  to  present  them  in  a  concise  form  for  general  use. 

A  brief  description  is  given  of  the  four  principal  species  of 
wood  found  in  Washington  and  Oregon,  viz.,  Douglas  Fir,  Western 
Red  Cedar,  Western  Hemlock  and  Sitka  Spruce,  this  informa- 
tion may  be  of  interest  to  those  not  entirely  familiar  with  Pacific 
Coast  conditions. 

Many  thousands  of  computations  have  been  made  in  pre- 
paring the  tables  in  this  book.  All  computations  have  been  cross- 
checked to  eliminate  possible  errors.  Tables  show  the  safe  total 
loads  and  corresponding  deflections  for  rectangular  beams  of 
various  sizes.  The  number  of  pounds  per  board  foot  of  lumber, 
supported  by  beams,  is  also  shown,  which  will  assist  in  effecting 
economical  designs.  Tables  have  been  computed  which  show  the 
safe  loads  on  beams  limited  by  the  horizontal  shearing  stress. 
Other  tables  show  safe  total  loads  on  columns  of  various  sizes 
and  still  other  tables  give  the  maximum  spans  for  mill  and  lami- 
nated floors,  board  measure  for  various  dimensions  and  lengths, 
and  board  measur°  and  weight  for  unit  lengths  of  Douglas  fir 
dimension  timber. 

Data  and  figures  are  given  on  timber  frame-brick  mill  build- 
ings, showing  costs,  insurance  rates,  and  details  of  construction. 
Standard  formulas  for  computing  stresses  covering  the  usual 
practical  conditions  are  given.  A  grading  rule  for  securing  struc- 
tural timbers  of  high  strength  is  also  included. 

A  considerable  amount  of  data  is  presented  on  the  creosoting 
of  Douglas  fir  lumber  in  various  forms,  such  as  bridge  stringers, 
mine  timbers,  piling,  ties,  bridge  caps,  paving  blocks,  silo  staves, 
and  other  forms.  Space  is  devoted  to  wooden  silos  and  red  cedar 
shingles.  Kiln  drying  lumber  is  briefly  discussed  as  well  as  other 
subjects  of  interest  to  the  consumer  of  wood. 


498125 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

Acknowledgment  is  herewith  made  of  the  able  review  of 
the  manuscript  of  this  book  by  Paul  P.  Whitham,  Assoc.  Mem. 
Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Consulting  Civil  Engineer  and  former  Chief  Engi- 
neer, Port  of  Seattle,  and  Charles  C.  More,  Assoc.  Mem.  Am.  Soc. 
C.  E.,  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  University  of  Washington, 
both  of  whom  are  men  of  wide  experience  in  the  use  of  struc- 
tural timber. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


A  Giant  Douglas  Fir  17   Feet   in   Diameter. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


LUMBER  CUT  OP  UHITED  STATES  -  1913 


TIMBER  SUPPLY  0?  UNITED  STATES 


Other  Pacific 

Coast  Species 

709,600.000  M  Pt 

26.1  Percent 


Fi«r.   1.     Lumber  cut  of  United  States  in  1913   and  distribution  of  th« 
standing   timber   supply. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


PACIFIC   COAST    TIMBER 

The  largest  and  finest  growth  of  timber  in  the  world  is  found 
on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Figure  1  shows  that  Douglas  fir,  a  single 
species,  composes  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  entire  standing 
timber  supply  of  the  United  States,  including  both  softwoods  and 
hardwoods. 

The  timber  stand  of  Washington  and  Oregon  is  such  as  to 
insure  a  permanent  source  of  supply  of  the  highest  class  of  lum- 
ber. The  winter  climate  in  this  vast  timber  belt  is  very  mild, 
enabling  the  lumber  camps  and  mills  to  operate  continuously, 
thereby  producing  a  steady  supply  of  manufactured  products. 
Practically  all  log  transportation  is  by  water  and  many  of  the 
mills  are  located  on  tidewater.  These  conditions  make  possible 
the  production  of  lumber  at  a  minimum  operating  cost. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  timber  supply  of 
Washington  and  Oregon  is  the  particularly  large  sizes  of  tim- 
bers which  are  available.  Structural  timbers  of  Douglas  fir 
18"xl8"xl20'  to  140'  in  length  may  be  had  at  any  time  and  timbers 
36"x36"x50'  to  80'  in  length  are  as  readily  available.  This 
gives  some  idea  as  to  the  possibilities  in  manufacturing  Struc- 
tural forms  from  the  huge  logs  available  in  these  timber  states. 

Lumbering  has  for  many  years  been  the  largest  industry  in 
the  states  of  Washington  and  Oregon,  and  will  continue  to  hold 
first  place  for  many  years  to  come.  Statistics  from  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  232  show  the  lumber  cut 
of  these  states  to  have  been  6,690,520,000  feet  board  measure  in 
1913.  This  cut  amounted  to  17.4  per  cent  of  the  total  lumber  cut 
in  the  United  States  in  the  same  year.  The  lumber  products  of 
Washington  and  Oregon  for  1913  were  distributed  to  almost  every 
part  of  the  United  States.  Approximately  9  per  cent  were  ex- 
ported to  foreign  countries.  The  accompanying  map  (Fig.  2)  was 
prepared  by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  Portland,  Oregon,  and  shows 
the  percentage  of  the  lumber  cut  in  Washington  and  Oregon  in 
1913  which  was  shipped  to  the  various  states.  This  wide  distrib- 
ution is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  with  Douglas  Fir,  Western 
Red  Cedar,  Western  Hemlock  and  Sitka  Spruce  from  which  to 
select,  it  is  possible  to  secure  a  material  which  will  serve  any  use 
for  which  wood  is  adapted. 


THE     WEST     COAST     LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


6  BILLI0.1  FEE 


Fig.  2.  Distribution  of  cut  of  Douglas  Fir  and  associated  species  from  the 
States  of  Washington  and  Oregon.  Figures  given  in  percentage 
of  total  cut.  and  in  board  feet  per  capita. 

In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  uses  to  which  these  four 
species  may  best  be  placed,  the  following  description  may  be  of 


DOUGLAS  FIR 
(Pseudotsuga  taxifolia) 

Common  names  in  use:  Red  fir,  yellow  fir,  Oregon  pine, 
Puget  Sound  pine  and  Douglas  spruce. 

The  name  Douglas  fir  has,  however,  recently  been  adopted 
by  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  and  is  rapidly  replacing  other  names 
previously  used  for  this  species. 

Douglas  fir  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  these  species.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  give  a  better  general  description  of  this  wood 
than  is  found  in  the  following  quotations  taken  from  U.  S.  Forest 
Service  Bulletin  No.  88. 

"Douglas  fir  may,  perhaps,  be  considered  as  the  most  impor- 
tant of  American  woods.  Though  in  point  of  production  it  ranks 
second  to  southern  yellow  pine,  its  rapid  growth  in  the  Pacific 
Coast  forests,  its  comparatively  wide  distribution  and  the  great 
variety  of  uses  to  which  its  wood  can  be  put,  place  it  first.  It 
is  very  extensively  used  in  the  building  trades;  by  the  railroads 
in  the  form  of  ties,  piling,  car  and  bridge  material  and  by  many 
of  the  manufacturing  industries  of  the  country.  As  a  structural 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


timber  it  is  not  surpassed  and  probably  it  is  most  widely  used  and 
known  in  this  capacity." 

"Douglas  fir  is  manufactured  into  almost  every  form  known 
to  the  sawmill  operator.  A  list  of  such  forms  and  uses  would 
represent  many  industries  and  would  include  piling  and  poles, 
mine  timbers,  railway  ties,  bridge  and  trestle  timbers,  timbers 
for  car  construction;  practically  all  kinds  of  lumber  for  houses, 
material  for  the  furniture  maker  and  boat  builder;  special  prod- 
ucts for  cooperage,  tanks,  paving  blocks,  boxes,  and  pulpwood; 
fuel;  and  a  long  line  of  miscellaneous  commodities." 

"Piling  is  extensively  employed  in  harbor-improvement  work 
and  in  preparing  foundations  in  soft  ground  for  bridges,  trestles 
and  other  heavy  structures.  The  long,  straight,  slightly  tapering 
trunk  of  Douglas  fir  fits  it  for  this  use,  and  it  is  strong,  resilient, 
and  fairly  durable.  It  has  no  important  competitor  as  a  pile 
timber  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  and  is  used 
almost  exclusively  for  marine  and  railroad  work  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  The  wood  is  sufficiently  hard  to  penetrate  readily  most 
soils,  and  it  acts  well  under  the  hammer.  It  is  occasionally 
necessary  to  band  the  tops  of  piles  to  prevent  brooming  and  split- 
ting, but  bands  are  used  only  where  hard  subsoils  must  be  pene- 
trated." 

"Ties  of  Douglas  fir  are  both  sawed  and  hewed,  though  three- 
fourths  are  sawed.  Those  which  are  sawed  are  made  both  from 
second  growth  and  from  mature  trees.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
ties  supplied  by  the  forests  of  the  western  part  of  the  United 
States  are  of  Douglas  fir,  the  remaining  one-third  consisting 
cniefly  of  western  yellow  pine,  lodgepole  pine,  redwood  and  west- 
ern hemlock.  Practically  all  the  large  sawmills  in  Washington 
and  Oregon  cut  fir  ties  to  order,  and  some  small  mills  cut  little  or 
nothing  else.  It  is  customary  to  saw  ties  from  a  large  portion  of 
low-grade  material  obtained  in  the  usual  milling  operations. 
Douglas  fir  generally  yields  about  25  per  cent  of  high-grade 
lumber  and  the  remaining  75  per  cent  must  be  worked  into  lower 
grade  lumber,  dimension  products,  timbers,  and  ties." 

"BRIDGE  AND  TRESTLE  TIMBERS.  Probably  the  Pacific  Coast 
railroads  use  more  Douglas  fir  than  is  consumed  by  any  other 
single  industry.  Bridge  and  trestle  timbers  of  the  wood  compare 
favorably  in  their  structural  merits  with  those  from  any  other 
American  species.  They  are  light  and  strong,  fairly  resilient  and 
durable,  and  can  be  had  in  any  desired  size  or  specification.  In 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

trestles,  fir  is  used  in  the  round  form  for  piling,  and  in  dimension 
sizes  for  posts,  caps,  sills,  ties,  girts,  and  braces." 

"CAB  MATERIAL.  Douglas  fir  car  sills  are  used  in  the  con- 
struction and  repair  of  freight  and  passenger  cars  throughout 
the  United  States.  Their  strength,  elasticity,  durability,  and  the 
ease  with  which  the  wood  may  be  worked  make  them  preferable 
to  all  others.  The  wood  is  much  employed  in  car  building  for 
purposes  other  than  sills.  In  fact,  it  is  used  for  nearly  all  pur- 
poses, except  for  draft-rigging  supports,  which  are  made  of  oak 
or  maple.  It  is  employed  for  siding,  framing,  flooring,  roofing, 
and  many  other  parts  of  passenger  cars.  Though  the  interi6r 
finish  of  cars  is  generally  of  hardwood,  Douglas  fir  has  been  given 
place  in  some  dining  and  private  cars,  because  of  the  beauty  of 
its  grain." 

"HOUSE  CONSTRUCTION  MATERIAL.  For  house  construction 
Douglas  fir  is  manufactured  into  all  forms  of  dimension  stock, 
and  is  used  particularly  for  general  building  and  construction 
purposes.  Its  strength  and  comparative  lightness  fit  it  for  joists, 
floor  beams,  rafters,  and  other  timbers  which  must  carry  loads. 
Occasionally  entire  buildings  are  constructed  of  it,  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  Pacific  States  it  is  practically  the  only  common  lum- 
ber used.  The  largest  consumption  is  in  Washington,  California, 
Oregon,  Utah,  Idaho,  and  Colorado." 

"FLOORING.  The  comparative  hardness  of  the  wood  fits  it  for 
flooring,  and  it  meets  a  large  demand.  Douglas  fir  edge-grain 
flooring  is  often  considered  superior  to  that  made  from  any  other 
American  softwood,  and  it  is  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  to  the 
exclusion  of  nearly  all  others." 

"FINISH.  Clear  lumber,  sawed  flat  grain,  shows  pleasing  fig- 
ures, and  the  contrast  between  the  spring  and  summer  wood  has 
been  considered  as  attractive  as  the  grain  of  quarter-sawed  oak. 
It  takes  stain  well,  and  by  staining,  the  beauty  of  the  grain  may 
be  more  strongly  brought  out,  and  a  number  of  costly  woods  can 
be  successfully  imitated.  Fir  finish  has  been  widely  advertised, 
and  the  demand  for  it  in  the  Eastern  States,  the  Middle  Western 
States,  and  in  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley  is  rapidly  increasing. 
Its  chief  use  is  for  door  and  window  casing,  baseboards,  and  all 
kinds  of  panelwork.  Practically  all  of  the  finish  is  used  by  the 
building  trades,  and  the  largest  use  naturally  is  near  the  points 
of  production,  though  it  is  in  great  demand  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia and  in  Hawaii." 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


"PAVING  BLOCKS.  Paving  blocks  of  Douglas  fir,  wheii  giveii 
preservative  treatment,  are  rapidly  coming  into  use  in  municipal 
improvements.  The  wood's  hardness  and  the  comparative  ease 
with  which  the  blocks  may  be  treated  with  creosote  make  it 
compare  favorably  with  other  paving  woods.  The  blocks  wear 
slowly  under  heavy  traffic,  are  nearly  noiseless,  furnish  fair  toe 
hold  to  horses,  are  resilient,  and  are  practically  impervious  to 
water.  It  is  important,  however,  that  they  be  thoroughly  im- 
pregnated with  preservative." 

WESTERN  RED  CEDAR 
(Thuja  plicata) 

Common  names  in  use:  Red  cedar,  Arborvitae,  Western 
cedar,  canoe  cedar,  and  gigantic  red  cedar. 

Western  red  cedar  has  certain  individual  qualifications  which 
particularly  fit  it  for  certain  purposes.  The  wood  is  soft  and 
straight  grained.  It  is  especially  suited  for  siding  or  any  out- 
side forms  exposed  to  the  weather  since  it  has  remarkable  dura- 
bility and  holds  paint  and  stains  well.  Red  cedar  is  used  for 
the  construction  of  rowboats,  canoes,  motorboats,  and  similar 
small  vessels.  Having  a  low  shrinkage  factor,  it  readily  resists 
alternate  changes  from  wet  to  dry.  Red  cedar  is  cut  extensively 
into  shingles  and  for  this  use  it  has  no  equal.  The  life  of  the 
red  cedar  shingle  is  measured  by  its  mechanical  wear  since  it 
does  not  decay.  Red  cedar  is  a  particularly  favored  wood  for  use 
in  lining  closets  and  making  clothes  chests.  The  odor  of  the 
wood  is  very  pleasant,  but  it  is  objectionable  to  moths  and  simi- 
lar insects. 

Western  red  cedar  is  a  beautiful  wood  to  work  since  its  grain 
is  so  uniform.  It  may  be  very  smoothly  finished  and  is  beauti- 
ful for  ceiling,  paneling,  or  finishing  in  places  where  the  wood 
is  not  subjected  to  hard  wear. 

Western  red  cedar  is  extensively  used  as  a  pole  and  post 
timber.  It  has  the  required  strength  for  this  use  and  its  natural 
resistance  to  decay  is  responsible  for  its  wide  application  in  this 
field. 

WESTERN   HEMLOCK 
(Tsuga  heterophylla) 

Common  names  in  use:  Hemlock,  Western  hemlock,  Western 
hemlock  fir,  and  Alaska  pine. 

As  western  hemlock  is  becoming  better  known  it  is  gradually 
gaining  a  reputation  as  a  distinctive  wood,  not  to  be  confused  in 


11 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S    ASSOCIATION 

its  properties  with  other  species  of  the  same  family.  It  is  used 
extensively  in  building  operations  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  locally 
commands  the  same  price  as  Douglas  fir  for  this  purpose.  The 
following  quotations  are  taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin 
115  and  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  merits  and  adaptability  of  this 
wood. 

"STRUCTURAL  USES.  The  demand  for  western  hemlock  both 
in  the  form  of  ordinary  lumber  and  for  special  uses  will  no 
doubt  increase  when  its  properties  are  better  known.  At  present 
it  has  a  very  poor  market  standing  because  of  the  prejudice 
against  the  name  "hemlock."  The  lumber  is  practically  free 
from  pitch,  has  a  handsome  grain,  takes  paints  and  stains  well, 
and  works  smoothly,  both  spring  and  summer  wood  standing 
up  well  to  the  cutting  edge.  It  is  at  present  manufactured  into 
the  common  forms  of  lumber,  and  is  also  used  for  pulp,  boxes, 
barrels,  sash  and  door  stock,  fixtures,  furniture  and  other  special 
uses." 

"BRIDGE  AND  TRESTLE  TIMBERS.  Western  hemlock  is  well 
suited  for  use  in  all  but  the  heaviest  construction  work,  as  shown 
by  results  of  the  tests  discussed  in  this  bulletin;  but  up  to  the 
present  it  has  had  a  limited  use  in  bridges  and  trestles.  It  has 
been  used  in  some  instances  for  caisson  construction." 

"CROSSTIES.  A  considerable  amount  of  western  hemlock  is 
cut  into  crossties.  Many  of  the  western  railroads  use  Douglas 
fir,  western  larch,  redwood,  and  western  hemlock  almost  ex- 
clusively for  tie  material." 

"POLES  AND  PILING.  Occasionally  western  hemlock  is  cut 
into  telephone  or  telegraph  poles,  but  its  use  in  this  form  has 
been  very  limited.  It  has  the  requisite  strength  for  pole  use  and 
grows  in  such  dimensions  as  to  make  it  very  suitable  for  this 
class  of  work.  With  a  good  butt  treatment  with  some  efficient 
preserving  fluid  it  should  give  good  service  as  a  pole  material." 

"Though  practically  all  piling  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  is  of 
Douglas  fir,  western  hemlock  is  used  to  a  limited  extent,  however, 
for  this  class  of  work  and  has  apparently  given  satisfaction." 

"FLOORING.  Western  hemlock,  when  cut  edge  grain,  makes 
an  excellent  flooring  material.  It  finishes  smoothly  on  account 
of  the  uniform  texture  of  the  wood  and  it  also  wears  evenly.  It 
is  not  suitable  for  use  in  damp  places,  on  account  of  its  tendency 
to  warp  under  such  conditions." 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


"INSIDE  FINISHING.  As  a  finish  lumber  western  hemlock  has 
the  advantage  of  containing  practically  no  pitch;  it  has  a  beau- 
tiful grain,  works  smoothly,  takes  stain  readily,  and,  when  prop- 
erly dried,  will  not  shrink  or  swell  materially  under  normal  con- 
ditions. It  presents  a  comparatively  hard  surface  and  conse- 
quently does  not  mar  easily." 

"BABBELS  AND  BOXES.  Western  hemlock  is  used  to  a  large 
extent  for  barrels  and  boxes  for  shipping  foodstuffs.  For  this 
purpose  it  serves  admirably,  since  the  wood  is  odorless  and  taste- 
less. Its  strength  and  lightness  also  add  to  its  value  for  these 
uses.  It  has  some  tendency  to  split  when  nails  are  driven  into 
it,  but  this  fault  may  be  largely  overcome  by  the  use  of  fine 
nails." 

SITKA  SPRUCE 
(Picea  sitchensis) 

Common  names  in  use:  Tideland  spruce,  Great  tideland 
spruce,  and  Western  spruce. 

The  peculiar  characteristics  of  spruce  have  obtained  for  it  a 
wide  variety  of  applications. 

It  is  a  very  white,  straight-grained  wood  of  tough  fiber,  is 
entirely  without  taste  or  odor,  and  is  of  exceptionally  light  weight 
and  extremely  stiff.  It  is  probably  the  stiffest  softwood  in  the 
United  States,  in  proportion  to  its  weight. 

It  cuts  to  particular  advantage  for  doors,  window  and  door 
frames,  mouldings,  stepping,  cornices,  and  is  extensively  used 
for  bevel  siding  for  house  construction. 

It  is  very  desirable  and  economical  for  large  doors,  such  as 
are  used  for  garages,  freight  houses  and  similar  structures. 

Because  of  its  entire  lack  of  taste  or  odor  it  is  unsurpassed 
for  the  manufacture  of  containers  for  shipping  butter,  meats  and 
other  food  products,  and  it  is  given  special  preference  for  making 
refrigerators. 

It  is  highly  valued,  and  has  a  wide  demand  in  the  con- 
struction of  pianos,  organs,  violins,  guitars  and  mandolins. 

Because  of  its  stiffness,  tough  fiber,  straight  grain,  and 
light  weight,  it  has  been  given  a  prominent  place  in  the  building 
of  aeroplanes. 

Spruce  has  been  used  quite  extensively  in  pontoon  bridge 
construction.  It  is  found  to  combine  strength  and  lightness  to 
the  highest  degree,  and  is  easily  transported  from  place  to  place, 
and  is  tough  enough  to  stand  rough  usage. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S    ASSOCIATION 


MECHANICAL   AND    PHYSICAL    FKOFEKT1ES 
OF    TIMBER 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  a  correct  comparison  of  the  strength 
properties  of  structural  timbers,  yet,  from  a  practical  point  of 
view,  structural  sizes  furnish  the  data  sought  by  engineers  and 
others  to  guide  them  in  their  designs. 

In  preparation  of  the  following  tables  showing  the  various 
properties  of  structural  timbers,  every  effort  has  been  made  to 
obtain  the  most  up  to  date  figures  available.  In  all  comparisons 
made  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  size  of  the  timbers, 
general  quality,  moisture  condition  and  to  other  factors  which 
affect  the  strength.  Many  publications  have  been  issued  from 
time  to  time  containing  values  for  structural  timbers.  In  many 
cases  the  timbers  have  been  unlike  in  grades  and  have  varied 
materially  in  moisture  content.  Due  to  variations  in  such  fac- 
tors as  mentioned,  comparisons  have  been  in  many  cases  very 
misleading.  This  point  has  been  recognized  in  preparing  the 
following  data  and  every  effort  has  been  made  to  eliminate  com- 
parisons which  are  not  on  the  same  basis. 

VARIABILITY    OF    TIMBER 

All  species  of  timber  show  variations  in  weight  and  strength. 
These  variations  are  considerable  in  some  cases  depending  upon 
the  quality  of  the  clear  wood  as  well  as  the  grade  and  condition 
of  seasoning  of  the  timber.  It  is  essential  that  the  quality  of 
the  timbers  of  any  species  be  determined  by  due  consideration  of 
these  factors  rather  than  locality  of  growth,  etc.  The  density 
classification  for  Douglas  fir  timbers  proposed  on  pages  31  to  33 
is  expected  to  eliminate  to  a  large  extent  these  variables  and 
insure  a  product  of  uniform  strength  qualities. 

BENDING  STRENGTH  OF  LARGE  STRINGERS 
Tables  I  and  2  show  results  obtained  from  U.  S.  Forest 
Service  Bulletin  No.  108,  pages  74  to  123.  In  order  to  make  the 
comparison)  fair  to  all  species  approximately  30  per  cent  of  the 
lowest  tests  were  discarded,  thus  eliminating  timbers  with  serious 
defects.  This  elimination  is  particularly  necessary  because  of 
the  fact  that  certain  species  were  tested  in  many  cases  with  large 
knots  purposely  placed  on  the  tension  face  of  the  beam  in  order 
to  determine  the  influence  of  such  defects  upon  the  strength. 
Douglas  fir  was  the  principal  species  used  in  studying  the  effect 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


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THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


AVERAGE  STRENGTH  VALUES  FOR  STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS 
AIR-SEASONED  MATERIAL 
TABLE  2  Taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin  108. 

B    in 

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Per  Cent 

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USM 

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Per  Cent 

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16 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


of  knots,  therefore  approximately  30 

per  cent 

of  the  Douglas  fir 

stringers,   car   sills   and   joists   were 

chosen    with   knots    in   the 

tension  face 

which 

materially  affected 

the  strength.    Such  timbers 

should  not 

be  included  in 

establishing  strength  values  for  any 

species.     No  stringers  were 

used  in  tables  1  and  2  in  which  the 

cross  section  was 

ess  than 

60  square  inches. 

AVERAGE    STRENGTH    VALUES    FOR    STRUCTURAL    TIMBERS 

(Grade 

I,  Tentative  Grading  Rule 

s,  U.   S.  Forest  Service) 

GREI 

:N   MATE 

RIAL 

Results  taken  from  U.   S.   Forest  Service  Bulletin   108,  Page'  65. 

TABLE  3 

Table  8. 

Relative 

Relative 

Fiber  Stress 

Modulus 

Modulus 

Strength 

Stiffness 

No. 

at 

of 

of 

based  on 

based  on 

Species 

of 

Elastic  Limit 

Rupture 

Elasticity 

Modulus  of 

Modulus  of 

Tests 

per  Sq.  In. 

per  Sq.  In. 

per  Sq.  In. 

Rupture. 
Douglas  Fir 

Elasticity. 
Douglas  Fir 

=100  per  cent 

=100  per  cent 

Lbe. 

Lbs. 

1000  Ibs. 

PerCent 

Per  Cent 

Douglas  Fir  

81 

4402 

6919 

1643 

100.0 

100.0 

Longleaf  Pine.... 

17 

3734 

6140 

1463 

88.7 

89.0 

Loblolly  Pine.... 

45 

3513 

5898 

1535 

85.3 

93.4 

Shortleaf  Pine.  .  .  . 

35 

3318 

5849 

1525 

84.5 

92.8 

Western  Hemlock 

26 

3689 

5615 

1481 

81.1 

90.2 

Western  Larch... 

45 

3662 

5479 

1365 

79.2 

Tamarack  

9 

3151 

5469 

1276 

79.0 

77> 

Redwood  

21 

4031 

4932 

1097 

71.3 

66.8 

Norway  Pine  

17 

3082 

4821 

1373 

69.6 

83  6 

Note.—  See 

Table  3 

"Variability  of  Timber"  page 

probably  shows  the  best 

14. 

available 

data  published  in 

any  Government  bulletin  for  comparing  the  strength  of 

different 

species  of  structural  timber.     The  data  in  this  table  are  taken 

from  U.  S. 

Forest 

Service  Bulletin  No.  108,  page  65.     This  table 

shows  results  of  tests  on  a 

large  number  of  stringers  of  different 

species  graded  by 

the  tentative  grading  rule  of  the  U. 

S.  Forest 

Service.     All  these  timbers 

were  of 

practically  the  sai 

ne  grade. 

The  results 

show 

Douglas 

fir  to  be 

the  strongest  wood  with  a 

modulus  of 

rupture  of  6,919 

pounds  per  square  inch.     This  value 

is  based  on 

81  tests  of  full  size  bridge  stringers.    The  modulus  of 

elasticity  for  the 

same  set 

of  stringers  is  1,643,000  pounds  per 

square  inch 

HORIZONTAL  SHEAR.     There  seems  to  be  an 

impression  among 

those  unfamiliar  with  Douglas  fir  that  this  wood  is  not  capable  of 

developing  £ 

i  high 

unit  stress  in  horizontal  shear.    The  erroneous 

impression  has  come  largely  from  comparing  the  shearing  stress 

developed  in  Douglas  fir  beams  tested  on  long  spans  and  in  many 

THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S    ASSOCIATION 


cases  under  center  loading,  with  similar  shearing  stresses  devel- 
oped in  timbers  of  other  species  tested  on  shorter  spans  under 
third  point  loading.  Since  the  horizontal  shear  developed  de- 
pends on  the  maximum  load,  it  is  very  clear  that  a  higher  shear 
will  be  developed  in  beams  tested  under  third  point  or  uniform 
loading  than  in  those  tested  under  center  loading.  Due  to  this 
fact  the  horizontal  shearing  stress  developed  in  Douglas  fir 
stringers  tested  under  center  loading  should  not  be  compared 
to  that  developed  in  stringers  of  other  species  tested  under  third 
point  loading. 

Tables  4  and  5  show  the  horizontal  shear  developed  in 
8"xl6"xl6'  Douglas  fir  bridge  stringers  tested  under  one-third 
point  loading  on  a  15-foot  span.  These  results  were  obtained  from 
the  Seattle  Timber  Testing  Laboratory  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service 
and  they  do  not  appear  in  any  other  publication  in  the  form 
here  shown.  The  results  are  very  significant  and  show  that 
Douglas  fir  is  capable  of  resisting  high  horizontal  shearing 


HORIZONTAL,  SHEAR  DEVELOPED  IN  53 — 8"xl6"xl6'  DOUGLAS 
FIR  BEAMS — GREEN  MATERIAL 

Tested  on  a  15-foot  Span  Under  1/3  Point  Loading 

Data  furnished  by  U.  S.  Forest  Service  from  results  of  tests  made  at 

the  Seattle  Timber  Testing  Laboratory. 
TABLE  4 


Grade 

No. 
of 
Tests 

Maximum 
Horizontal 
Shear 
Developed 
per  Sq.  In. 

Number 
Failing 

Horizontal 
Shear 

Shear  Developed  in 
Stringers  Failing 
in 
Horizontal  Shear 
per  Sq.  In. 

Average 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Clear  and  Select.... 
Merchantable  
Common  

25 

15 
13 

405 
404 
330 

3 

8 

471 
425 
371 

474 
476 
371 

468 
391 
371 

Table  4  shows  results  for  green  stringers  and  table  5  gives 
similar  results  for  air  seasoned  material.  Of  53  green  stringers 
tested  25  were  of  clear  and  select  grades,  15  merchantable  and 
13  common.  The  grading  rule  used  in  grading  these  timbers 
was  the  export  rule  of  the  West  Coast  Lumber  Manufacturers' 
Association.  Of  the  25  stringers  of  clear  and  select  grades,  3 
failed  in  horizontal  shear  at  an  average  stress  of  471  pounds/sq. 
inch.  The  maximum  was  474  and  the  minimum  468  pounds/sq. 
inch.  Eight  of  the  15  merchantable  sticks  failed  by  horizontal 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


shear  at  an  average  stress  of  425  pounds/sq.  inch.    The  maximum 
was  476  and  the  minimum  391  pounds/sq.  inch. 

HORIZONTAL,  SHEAR  DEVELOPED  IN  19 — 8"xl6"xl6'  DOUGLAS 
FIR   BEAMS — AIR-SEASONED    MATERIAL 

Tested  on  a  15-foot  Span  Under  1/3   Point  Loading 

Data  furnished  by  U.  S.  Forest  Service  from  results  of  tests  made  at 

the  Seattle  Timber  Testing  Laboratory. 
TABLE  5 


Grade 

No. 

A. 

Maximum 
Horizontal 
Shear 
Developed 
per  Sq.  In. 

Number 
Failing 
in 
Horizontal 
Shear 

Shear  Developed  in 
Stringers  Failing 
in 
Horizontal  Shear 
per  Sq.  In. 

Average 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Clear.  .  .  , 
Merchantable  
Common  

7 
6 
6 

444 
386 
385 

7 
3 
5 

444 
375 
384 

615 
488 
427 

364 
256 
351 

Table  5  shows  similar  results  for  19  air  seasoned  stringers. 

Of  16  full  sized  green  bridge  stringers  recently  tested  at 
Portland  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards  (see  table  16,  page  43) 
9  failed  by  horizontal  shear  developing  an  average  stress  of 
426  pounds/sq.  inch  with  a  maximum  of  503,  and  a  minimum  of 
381  pounds/sq.  inch. 

CRUSHING  STRENGTH  OF  LARGE  SIZES 

Tables  6  to  8  show  the  maximum  compressive  strength  of 
short  columns  of  Douglas  fir,  western  hemlock,  and  western 
larch.  In  these  tables  the  material  has  been  grouped  into  four 
classes,  namely,  clear  specimens,  specimens  containing  knots 
]X»"  in  diameter  or  less,  specimens  containing  knots  1X>"  to  l1/^" 
in  diameter,  and  specimens  containing  knots  larger  than  I1/-:" 
in  diameter.  Results  are  shown  for  both  green  and  air  seasoned 
material  except  in  the  case  of  Douglas  fir. 

In  the  mining  districts  of  the  United  States  both  round  and 
square  timbers  are  used.  In  an  effort  to  show  the  relative 
value  of  timbers  used  for  this  purpose,  table  9  has  been  pre- 
pared. ,  This  table  shows  the  maximum  crushing  strength  in 
pounds  per  sq.  inch  for  mine  timbers  of  a  number  of  western 
species.  The  strength  of  a  number  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
species  which  are  used  extensively  in  mine  work  is  also  given. 
This  comparison  shows  the  great  superiority  of  the  Coast  woods 
over  those  grown  in  the  high  altitudes. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


AVERAGE    STRENGTH    VALUES    FOR    DOUGLAS    FIR    IN    COM- 
PRESSION PARALLEL  TO  GRAIN 

6"x6"xl8"  POSTS 

Results   taken   from  U.    S.   Forest   Service   Bulletin    88,   Page   33, 
Table   6. 


TABLE  6 


GREEN  MATERIAL 


Material 

No.  of 
Tests 

Rings 
& 

Moisture 
Content 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot 

Corn- 
Strength 
at  Elastic 
Limit 
per 
Sq.In. 

Crushing 
Strength 
at  Maxi- 
mum 
Load 
per 
Sq.In. 

Modulus 
of  Elas- 
ticity 
per 
Sq.In. 

As 
Tested 

Oven- 
dry 

Per 
Cent 

Lbe. 

•Lbe. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1000  Ibs. 

Clear,... 
PinknotefJi'orless 
in  diameter)  
Standard  knots  (1A' 
to  \Yi    in  diam- 
eter)   
Large    knots    Cover 
1J-2*  in  diameter) 

130 

62 

227 
97 

11.8 

10.4 

9.0 
9.4 

30  4 
31.6 

30.9 
29.9 

38.1 
37.7 

37.8 
38.0 

29.2 
28.6 

28.9 
29.3 

3099 
2931 

2708 
2406 

3918 
3698 

3386 
3062 

1321 
1401 

1187 
940 

20 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


AVERAGE   STRENGTH   VALUES   FOR   WESTERN   HEMLOCK   IN 

COMPRESSION  PARALLEL  TO   GRAIN 

6"x6"x24"   POSTS 

Results  taken   from 

U.   S.   Forest  Service  Bulletin  115,  Page  21, 

Tables  5  and  6 

TABLE  7 

GREEN  MATERIAL 

Com-     Crushing 
Weight  per        pressive   Strength 
Cubic  Foot        Strenirth  at  Maxi- 

Modulus 
of  Elas- 

Material             No.  of 
Tests 

Rings     Moisture 

atElastic     mum 

ticity 

per        Content 
Inch                          As 

Limit       Load 
Oven-        per           per 

Tested 

Per  Cent      Lbs. 

Lbs.         Lbs.         Lbs. 

1000  Ibs. 

Clear....                         46 

15.7         48.5         41.2 

27.7        3018        3507 

1676 

Pin  knots  ('2'  or  less 

in  diameter)  12 

12.5         48.4         38.1 

25.6         2880         3396 

1670 

Standard  knots  CM>' 

to  I1//  in  diam- 

eter)           11 

15.7        42.0        36.6 

25.8        2838        3197 

1624 

I^arge    knots    (over 

I1  2"  in  diameter)        13 

14  6         42  0         379 

26.8         2590         2901 

1364 

AIR-SEASONED  MATERIAL 

Clear  64 
1'in  Knots  (^2'  or  less 

18.6         18.4         329 

27.8         5176         5952 

2109 

in  diameter)  8 

18.2         1$.6         33.3 

28.1         4523    .!    6051 

1756 

Standard  knots  (>i" 

to   I1  2'  in  diam- 

eter)          25 

18.1          18.8         34.0 

28.6         4556         5516 

2217 

I.arge    knots    (over 
U2'  in  diameter)         5 

14.7         19.3         35.9 

301          4248         5150 

2215 

21 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


AVERAGE   STRENGTH   VALUES   FOR   WESTERN   LAKi'll    US- 
COMPRESSION   PARALLEL  TO   GRAIN 

6"x6"x24"   POSTS 

Results  taken  from  U.   S.   Forest  Service  Bulletin  122,   Page   20, 
Tables  5  and  6 


TABLE   8 


GREEN  MATERIAL 


Material 

No.  of 
Tests 

Rings 

Moisture 
Content 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot 

Com- 
pressive 
Strength 
at  Elastic 
Limit 

Sq^n. 

Crushing 
Strength 
at  Maxi- 
mum 
Load 
per 
Sq.In. 

Modulus 
of  Elas- 
ticity 
per 
Sq.In. 

As 
Tested 

Oven- 
dry 

Per  Cent 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1000  Ibs. 

Clear  
Pin  knots  (Yz*  or  less 
in  diameter)  
Standard  knots  (W 
to  \y{  in  diam- 
eter)   
Large    knots    (over 
lp£*  in  diameter) 

51 

20 

28 
8 

25.4 
21.7 

24.2 
23.8 

52.3 
48.1 

44.5 
46.2 

44.8 
42.9 

39.2 
40.5 

29.3 

28.9 

27.0 
27.8 

2635 
2955 

2577 
2569 

3630 
3772 

3226 
3069 

1528 
1820 

1521 
1442 

AIR-SEASONED  MATERIAL 


Clear  
Pin  knots  (W  or  less 

67 

26.5 

15.0 

36.1 

31.3 

3801 

6253 

1769 

in  diameter)  

69 

24.3 

15.8 

35.5 

30.7 

3165 

5994 

2025 

Standard  knots  (Vz" 

to  \y<£  in  diam- 

eter)   

49 

22.3 

15.6 

33.1 

28.6 

2553 

4921 

1500 

Large    knots    (over 

\y£  in  diameter) 

8 

22.9 

15.5 

31.8 

27.5 

4520 

STRENGTH  OF  CLEAR  WOOD 

Table  10  shows  results  of  tests  on  small,  clear,  green  speci- 
mens. The  values  given  are  averages  and  give  a  fair  idea  of  the 
strength  of  the  various  species  in  this  form  of  material. 

The  following  diagram  is  taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service 
Bulletin  88  and  may  be  used  in  estimating  the  strength  of  small, 
clear  specimens  which  have  seasoned  to  a  point  where  strength 
begins  to  increase.  For  example,  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin 
108,  page  71,  shows  the  strength  of  small,  clear  Douglas  fir  beams 
2"x2"  in  cross  section  containing  19  per  cent  moisture  to  be 
10,378  pounds/sq.  inch.  If  similar  2"x2"  beams  of  Douglas  fir 
containing  16  per  cent  moisture  had  been  tested  the  modulus  of 
rupture  should  have  been  10,378x12,400=13,840  pounds/sq.  inch. 

"9^00 

Any  other  corrections  in  strength  values  may  be  made  in  a  simi- 
lar manner. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


14000 

13000 
10000 
8000 
6000 
4000 
2000 


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10 


1.     Relation    between    moisture    content    and    strength    values    fc 
small   clear  specimens   of  Douglas   Fir. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S    ASSOCIATION 


i 


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PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


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THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


GRADING  RULES  FOR  STRUCTURAL  TIMBERS 

The  dry  weight  of  small  clear  specimens,  particularly  for 
wood  containing  little  or  no  resinous  substance,  is  a  definite  indi- 
cation as  to  the  strength  of  the  wood  fiber.  This  fact  is  shown 
for  Douglas  fir  in  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin  108,  figure  15,  page 
39;  with  an  increase  in  dry  weight  of  from  19  to  36  pounds  per 
cubic  foot,  there  is  an  accompanying  increase  in  strength  (modu- 
lus of  rupture)  of  from  5,500  to  10,500  pounds  per  square  inch. 
These  figures  indicate  increases  of  47.2  and  47.7  per  cent  re- 
spectively for  weight  and  strength  based  on  the  maximum  values. 
The  question  now  arises,  does  this  same  law  hold  for  timbers 
of  standard  structural  sizes?  In  order  to  get  some  data  on  this 
point,  diagrams  2  and  3  have  been  prepared.  These  diagrams  are 
obtained  from  the  results  of  tests  of  Douglas  fir  bridge  stringers 
in  which  defects  did  not  cause  first  failure.  The  strength  values 
are  taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin  108.  In  each  of 
these  diagrams  the  timbers  have  been  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  strength  (modulus  of  rupture),  and  the  corresponding  dry 
weights  in  pounds  per  cubic  foot  plotted  in  each  case.  Diagram 
2  shows  results  of  tests  of  green  Douglas  fir  timbers  (8"xl6"xl6'), 
and  diagram  3  shows  similar  results  for  air  seasoned  Douglas  fir. 
stringers.  Diagram  2,  "Green  Timbers,"  shows  that  with  an 
average  increase  in  strength  of  from  4,800  to  8,250  pounds  per 
square  inch,  there  is  an  average  increase  in  dry  weight 
of  from  26.7  to  31.8  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  These  figures  indicate 
that  for  an  increase  in  strength  of  41.9  per  cent  there  is  an 
increase  in  weight  of  16.1  per  cent.  Diagram  3,  "Air  Seasoned 
Timbers,"  shows  that  with  an  average  increase  in  strength  of 
from  5,350  to  8,760  pounds  per  square  inch,  there  is  an  average 
increase  in  dry  weight  of  from  24.2  to  30.7  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

These  figures  indicate  that  for  an  increase  in  strength  of 
39.0  per  cent,  there  is  an  increase  in  weight  of  21.2  per  cent.  In 
both  diagrams  2  and  3  the  dry  weights  often  vary  almost  to  ex- 
tremes when  no  appreciable  variation  is  found  in  the  strength. 
In  diagram  3  the  last  portion  of  the  curve  shows  a  marked  in- 
crease in  weight,  which  is  accompanied  by  a  very  decided  drop 
in  strength.  Diagram  2  shows  no  drop  in  weight  over  the  last 
quarter  of  the  curve  where  the  drop  in  strength  is  very  material. 
In  other  words,  the  relation  found  between  dry  weight  and 
strength  is  erratic,  and  the  dry  weight  cannot  be  depended  upon 


26 


1'ACIFIC    COAST    WOOD£ 


2t5 


THE  WEST"COAST  LUMBERMEN'S   ASSOCIATION 


DRY  WEIGHT                                      MODULUS  OF  RUPTURE 
LBS.  PER  CU.  FT.                                              LBS.  PER  SQ.IN. 
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im  3.     Relation   between  Modulus  of  Rupture 
seasoned   Douglas   fir   bridge   stringers 
tested   on   15'   span. 

and  Dry  Weight.     Air- 
8"xl6"    in   cross-section 

PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


to  forecast  the  strength  of  structural  timbers  containing  defects 
to  any  great  degree  of  certainty. 

Exhaustive  tests  show  that  good  quality  timbers  exhibit  high 
strength  values  both  before  and  after  seasoning.  Some  species 
show  a  greater  tendency  to  check  in  seasoning  than  others,  and 
consequently  are  apt  to  show  less  gain  in  strength  and  some- 
times a  loss  due  to  seasoning.  Douglas  fir  and  western  hemlock 
exhibit  an  average  tendency  to  check,  but  tests  show  that  tim- 
bers of  these  species  maintain  their  original  green  strength 
after  seasoning  plus  some  additional  strength,  depending  upon 
the  character  of  the  original  material  and  the  amount  of  checking 
which  occurs  due  to  seasoning. 

For  reasons,  as  shown  above,  it  is  not  practicable  to  go  to  the 
refinement  of  determining  the  true  density  of  individual  timbers. 
It  is  sufficient  to  examine  a  timber  and  see  that  it  has  reasonable 
density  based  on  the  amount  of  summerwood  and  that  it  is  free 
from  injurious  defects. 

The  standard  grade  used  on  the  Pacific  Coast  at  the  present 
time  to  secure  high  grade  structural  timbers  is  "Selected  Com- 
mon." This  grade  covers  timbers  selected  from  the  grade  known 
as  No.  1  Common  as  shown  below. 

"No.  1  COMMON" 

"This  grade  shall  consist  of  lengths  8  feet  and  over  (except 
shorter  lengths  be  ordered)  of  a  quality  suitable  for  ordinary 
constructional  purposes.  Will  allow  small  amount  of  wane,  large 
sound  knots,  large  pitch  pockets,  colored  sap  one-third  the  width 
and  one-half  the  thickness,  slight  variation  in  sawing  and  slight 
streak  of  solid  heart  stain." 

"Defects  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  size  of  the 
piece." 

"Discoloration  through  exposure  to  the  elements  or  season 
checks  not  exceeding  in  length  one-half  the  width  of  the  piece 
shall  not  be  deemed  a  defect  excluding  lumber  from  this  grade, 
if  otherwise  conforming  to  the  grade  of  No.  1  Common." 

"SELECTED   COMMON" 

"This  is  a  grade  selected  from  the  grade  of  No.  1  Common, 
and  shall  consist  of  lumber  free  from  defects  that  materially 
impair  the  strength  of  the  piece,  well  manufactured  and  suitable 


29 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

for  high  class  constructional  and  structural  purposes  or  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  intended,  including  bridge  timbers,  floor 
joists,  ship  timbers,  factories  and  warehouses,  designed  to  carry 
heavy  loads,  etc." 

The  "Selected  Common"  grade  will  secure  good  material  for 
general  constructional  purposes.  There  is  a  demand,  however,  for 
a  rule  which  will  make  a  still  closer  separation  of  timbers,  elimi- 
nating all  pieces  not  possessing  high  strength  values. 

In  formulating  the  following  proposed  grading  rules  for 
"Selected  Structural  Douglas  Fir  Timbers"  an  effort  has  been 
made  to  form  a  rule  which  is  simple,  practicable  and  fair  to  both 
producer  and  consumer.  Above  all  it  has  been  the  aim  by  means 
of  this  rule  to  obtain  a  grade  of  timber  which  is  suitable  for  the 
highest  class  of  construction  wprk  and  which  will  admit  only  tim- 
bers of  high  strength  values.  There  is  a  demand  for  such  a  rule 
and  it  will  be  possible  with  this  rule  to  use  a  higher  safe  fiber 
stress  than  that  in  use  at  the  present  time  for  timbers  of  the 
ordinary  grades.  This  rule  does  not  in  any  way  take  the  place 
of  other  rules  of  the  West  Coast  Lumbermen's  Association,  but 
it  is  intended  for  use  in  securing  particularly  strong  timbers. 
Careful  consideration  in  forming  the  rule  has  been  given  to  de- 
fects of  the  common  type  and  to  the  influence  of  quality  of  the 
wood  fiber.  The  position  of  knots  in  stringers  bears  a  very 
close  relation  to  the  strength  of  the  piece,  therefore  special  at- 
tention has  been  given  to  this  subject.  Figure  3  shows  a  beam 
divided  into  three  volumes.  Volumes  1  and  2  are  portions  in 
which  maximum  fiber  stresses  are  developed  and  volume  3  is  the 
portion  of  low  tensile  and  compressive  stresses. 


Flgr.  3.     Division  of  stringer  Into  volumes  for  considering  position  of  knots. 

Stringers  of  the  highest  grade  must  also  be  composed  of 
dense  strong  fiber  and  free  from  all  injurious  defects.  With  these 
points  in  mind,  the  following  specification  has  been  prepared 
which  allows  fairly  large  knots  in  volume  3  but  restricts  to  I1/*-" 
the  size  of  the  knots  in  volumes  1  and  2. 


30 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


SELECTED  STRUCTURAL  DOUGLAS  FIR 

SPECIFICATION  FOR  BRIDGE  AND  TRESTLE  TIMBERS 

PROPOSED  RULE 

1.  DEFINITIONS.  The  following  definitions  are  used  in  con- 
nection with  this  grading  rule: 

(a)  Annual  Ring.     Each  annual  ring  is  composed  of  two 
distinct  types  of  wood  structure  i.  e.,  the  porous,  light  colored 
and  light  weight  springwood  formed  during  the  first  part  of  the 
growing  season  and  the  hard,  dense  and  darker  colored  summer- 
wood  formed  during  the  latter  part  of  the  growing  season. 

(b)  Summerwood.     Summerwood  is  the  hard,  dense  portion 
of  the  annual  ring.     It  is  darker  in  color  than  the  more  porous 
springwood. 

(c)  Sound  and  Tight  Knot.    A  sound  and  tight  knot  is  one 
which  is  solid  across  its  face  and  which  is  as  hard  as  the  wood 
surrounding  it;  and  is  so  fixed  by  growth  or  position  that  it  will 
retain  its  place  in  the  piece. 

(d)  Encased  Knot.    An  encased  knot  is  one  whose  growth 
rings  are  not  intergrown  and  homogeneous  with  the  growth  rings 
of  the  piece  in  which  it  occurs.    The  encasement  may  be  partial 
or  complete;  if  intergrown  partially  or  so  fixed  by  growth  or  po- 
sition that  it  will  retain  its  place  in  the  piece,  it  shall  be  con- 
sidered a  sound  and  tight  knot. 

(e)  Loose  Knot.     A  loose  knot  is  one  not  firmly  held  in 
place  by  growth  or  position. 

(f)  Rotten  Knot.    A  rotten  knot  is  one  not  as  hard  as  the 
wood  surrounding  it. 

(g)  Measurement  of  Knots. 

In  Beams  the  diameter  of  a  knot  on  the  narrow  or  horizontal 
face  shall  be  taken  as  its  projection  on  a  line  perpendicular  to 
the  edge  of  the  timber.  On  the  wide  or  vertical  face,  the  smallest 
dimension  of  a  knot  is  to  be  taken  as  its  diameter. 

In  Columns  the  diameter  of  a  knot  on  any  face  shall  be  taken 
as  its  projection  on  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  edge  of  the  timber. 

(h)  Diagonal  Grain.  (Including  cross  and  spiral  grain.) 
Diagonal  grain  is  grain  not  parallel  with  all  the  edges  of  the 
piece. 

(i)  Dense  Douglas  Fir.  Shall  show  on  either  one  end  or  the 
other  an  average  of  at  least  6  annual  rings  per  inch  or  18  rings 
in  3  inches  and  at  least  33  1/3  per  cent  summerwood,  as  measured 


31 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

over  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth  inches  on  a  radial  line  from  the 
pith,  for  girders  not  exceeding  20"  in  height,  and  for  columns 
16"  square  or  less.  For  larger  timbers  the  inspection  shall  be 
made  over  the  central  3  inches  on  the  longest  radial  line  from 
the  pith  to  the  corner  of  the  piece.  Wide  ringed  material  ex- 
cluded by  the  above  will  be  accepted  provided  the  amount  of  sum- 
merwood  as  above  measured  shall  be  at  least  50  per  cent.  . 

In  case  where  timbers  do  not  contain  the  pith,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  locate  it  with  any  degree  of  accuracy,  the  same  in- 
spection shall  be  made  over  3  inches  on  an  approximate  radial 
line  beginning  at  the  edge  nearest  the  pith. 

The  radial  line  chosen  shall  be  representative.  In  case  of 
disagreement  between  purchaser  and  seller  as  to  what  is  a  repre- 
sentative radial  line  the  average  summerwood  and  number  of 
rings  shall  be  the  average  of  the  two  radial  lines  chosen. 

2.     GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS. 

(a)  Shall  contain  only  Dense  Douglas  Fir  timbers  as  denned 
in  paragraph  (i). 

(b)  Shall  consist  of  lumber,  well  manufactured,  square  edge 
and  sawed  standard  size;    solid  and  free  from   defects  such  as 
ring  shakes  and  injurious  diagonal  grain;  loose  or  rotten  knots; 
knots  in  groups;   decay;   pitch  pockets  over  6  inches  long  or  % 
inch  wide  or  other  defects  that  will  materially  impair  its  strength. 

(c)  Occasional  variation  in  sawing  not  to  exceed   ^4   inch 
scant  at  time  of  manufacture  allowed. 

(d)  When  timbers  4"x4"  and  larger  are  ordered  sized,  they 
will  be  %  inch  less  than  rough  size,  either  S1S1E  or  S4S,  unless 
otherwise  spe'cified. 

..  STBINGEBS,  GIBDEBS  AND  DEEP  JOISTS.  Shall  show  not  more 
than  15  per  cent  of  sap  on  each  of  the  four  sides,  measured  across 
the  sides  anywhere  in  the  length  of  the  piece.  Shall  not  have  in 
volumes  1  and  2  knots  greater  in  diameter  than  *4  the  width  of 
the  face  in  which  they  occur  with  a  maximum  of  1^  inches  in 
diameter.  Shall  not  have  in  volume  3  knots  larger  than  1/3  the 
width  of  the  face  in  which  they  occur  with  a  maximum  of  3 
inches  in  diameter.  Knots  within  the  center  half  of  the  span 
shall  not  exceed  in  the  aggregate  the  width  of  the  face  in  which 
they  occur.  Shall  not  permit  diagonal  grain  in  volumes  1  or  2 
with  a  slope  greater  than  one  in  twenty.  When  stringers  are  of 
two  span  length  they  shall  be  considered  as  two  separate  pieces 


32 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


and  the  above  restrictions  applied  to  each  half.  The  inspector 
shall  place  his  stamp  on  the  edge  of  the  stringer  to  be  placed  up 
in  service. 

CAPS  AND  SILLS.  Selected  structural  Douglas  fir  shall  show 
not  more  than  15  per  cent  of  sap  on  each  of  the  four  sides,  meas- 
ured across  the  sides  anywhere  in  the  length  of  the  piece,  and 
shall  be  free  from  knots  larger  than  %  the  width  of  the  face  in 
which  they  occur  with  a  maximum  of  3  inches  in  diameter.  Knots 
shall  not  be  in  groups. 

POSTS.  Selected  structural  Douglas  fir  shall  show  not  more 
than  15  per  cent  of  sap,  measured  across  the  face  anywhere  in  the 
length  of  the  piece,  and  shall  be  free  from  knots  larger  than  ^4 
the  width  of  the  face  in  which  they  occur  with  a  maximum  of 
3  inches  in  diameter.  Knots  shall  not  be  in  groups. 

LONGITUDINAL  STRUTS  OB  GIKTS.  Selected  structural  Douglas 
fir  shall  show  no  sap  on  one  face;  the  other  face  and  two  sides 
shall  show  not  more  than  15  per  cent  of  sap,  measured  across 
the  face  or  side  anywhere  in  the  piece,  and  shall  be  free  from 
knots  over  2  inches  in  diameter. 

LONGITUDINAL  X-BRACES,  SASH  BRACES  AND  SWAY  BBACES.  Se- 
lected structural  Douglas  fir  shall  show  not  more  than  15  per 
cent  of  sap  on  two  faces  and  four  square  edges,  and  shall  be  free 
from  knots  over  2  inches  in  diameter. 

BRANDING.  The  inspector  shall  brand  each  timber  which 
conforms  to  the  above  requirements  "Selected  Structural  Douglas 
Fir." 


THE    WEST    COAST     LrMr.F.UMKX'S     ASSOCIATION 


RECOMMENDED    WORKING    UNIT    STRESSES 

The  following  table  shows  the  working  stresses  recommended 

in  the  latest  building  codes  of  the  cities  of  Seattle,  Wash.,  and 

Portland,  Oregon.    The  City  of  Seattle  Building  Code  was  issued 

in  1914,  while  that  of  the  City  of  Portland  has  more  recently  been 

revised. 

WORKING  UNIT  STRESSES  RECOMMENDED  IN 

SEATTLE  AND 

PORTLAND  BUILDING   CODES 

TABLE  11 

Extreme 

Shear 

Fiber 

Com- 

Com- 

Species 

City 

Stress  and 
Tension 

pression 
Parallel 

pression 
across 

Horizontal 

Parallel 

Tension 
across 

with 

to 

Grain 

in 

to  Grain 

Grain 

Grain 

Grain 

Beams 

Direct 

Douglas  Fir. 

Seattle.... 
Portland... 

1600 
1800 

1600 
1600 

400 
400 

150 
175 

200 
240 

"ioo" 

Western 

Seattle.... 

1400 

1400 

350 

130 

180 

Hemlock.  . 

Portland... 

1500 

1500 

290 

120 

180 

""75"' 

After  making  a  careful  study  of  the  structural  properties  of 

Douglas  fir  and  western  hemlock,  the  following 

values  are  rec- 

ommended    by    the    West    Coast    Lumbermen's    Association    for 

selected  structural  Douglas  fir  timbers: 

WORKING  UNIT   STRESSES   RECOMMENDED   BY 

WEST 

COAST 

LUMBERMEN'S   ASSOCIATION 

TABLE  12 

Extreme 

Com- 

Com- 

Shear 

Species 

Class  of 
Construction 

Fiber 
Stress  and 

pression 
Parallel 

pression 
across 

Horizontal 

Parallel 

Tension 
across 

Tension 

to  Grain 

Grain 

in 

to  Grain 

Grain 

with  Grain 

Beams 

Direct 

Protected 

Structures. 

1800 

1600 

400 

175 

240 

100 

Douglas  Fir- 

Highway 

Structures 

1500 

1330 

330 

150 

200 

85 

Railway 

Structures 

1200 

1070 

270 

120 

160 

65 

Protected 

Structures 

1500 

1500 

310 

120 

180 

75 

Western 
Hemlock.. 

Highway 

Structures 

1250 

1250 

260 

100 

150 

65 

Railway 

Structures 

1000 

1000   • 

210 

80 

120 

50 

PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


KILN    DRYING    DOUGLAS    FIR 

Kiln  drying  is  one  of  the  important  phases  of  lumber  manu- 
facture. Of  late  years  a  great  many  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  construction  of  kilns,  and  in  the  methods  of  piling, 
heating  and  ventilating.  Some  woods  are  much  more  difficult 
to  kiln  dry  satisfactorily  than  others,  but  the  general  principles 
herein  mentioned  apply  to  all  woods,  and  particularly  to  Pacific 
Coast  species. 

1.  The  heat  should  be  carefully  regulated.     Extremely  high 
temperatures  cause  the  wood  to  become  to  brittle. 

2.  The  piling  should  be  such  as  to  enable  the  heat  to  enter 
the   wood   uniformly,   and   the   use   of   wide   stickers   should   be 
avoided.      Vertical    piling    has    done    a    great    deal    toward    the 
elimination  of  checking  and  warping. 

3.  Draughts  of  outside  air  and  too  much  ventilation  cause 
the    lumber    to    check    and    warp.      Steam    baths    before    drying 
greatly  aid  in  preventing  checking,  warping  and  case  hardening. 

Pacific  Coast  woods  present  no  serious  problems  in  kiln  dry- 
ing, and  with  the  perfected  methods  now  in  use  a  thoroughly 
satisfactory  product  is  obtained. 

All  finish  lumber  should  be  properly  kiln  dried  before  being 
placed  in  a  building.  Correct  methods  of  kiln  drying  prevent  the 
resin  from  oozing  through  the  varnish  and  also  largely  eliminate 
shrinking  and  swelling,  and  aid  in  securing  high  class  finish. 

Dimension  lumber  is  now  dried  for  uses  where  dry  material 
is  desirable.  No  serious  difficulties  are  experienced  in  drying 
dimension  stock  up  to  three  inches  in  thickness. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


CREOSOTING    DOUGLAS   FIR 

The  creosoting  of  Douglas  fir  has  been  practiced  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  for  more  than  25  years.  The  creosoting  of  such 
forms  as  lumber,  piling  and  paving  blocks  has  proved  an  entire 
success.  Douglas  fir  is  a  hard  wood  to  treat,  however,  and  it 
has  required  a  great  deal  of  study  and  experimenting  to  pro- 
duce thoroughly  satisfactory  results.  There  are  two  general 
classes  of  creosoted  material,  as  follows: 

1.  Wood   which   must   retain   its   full   strength   after   treat- 
ment. 

2.  Wood  in  which  the  strength  is  not  so  important,  the  real 
problem  being  that  of  protection  against  wood-destroying  agents. 

The  second  class  of  material  mentioned  has  caused  no  trou- 
ble. The  difficulty  has;  been  with  the  first  class. 

Both  the  steaming  and  boiling  processes  of  treatment  have 
been  employed  in  creosoting  Douglas  fir.  The  steaming  process 
will  produce  a  good  penetration,  probably  slightly  better  than  the 
boiling,  but  it  also  appears  to  weaken  the  timber  slightly  more 
than  the  boiling  process.  In  such  forms  as  bridge  stringers  and 
ties,  treatments  sufficiently  severe  to  obtain  satisfactory  penetra- 
tions have  caused  a  material  loss  in  strength.  The  problem, 
therefore,  which  has  confronted  the  industry  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
has  been  that  of  developing  a  process  of  creosoting  these  forms 
which  would  secure  a  thorough  penetration  and  at  the  same 
time  would  not  cause  a  material  loss  in  strength. 

From  experiments  which  have  been  made  it  has  been  shown 
that  high  temperatures  and  high  pressures  in  these  treatments 
are  largely  responsible  for  the  loss  in  strength  of  the  wood,  which 
under  such  treatments  amounted  to  as  much  as  33  to  35  per  cent 
in  bridge  stringers.  Even  greater  losses  than  these  have  occurred 
in  the  treatment  by  the  above  processes  of  Douglas  fir  ties.  These 
treatments  in  the  past  have  been  applied  about  as  follows: 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


BOILING  PROCESS 

The  timbers  were  placed  in  the  retort  in  a  green  condition, 
and  boiled  in  creosote  oil  under  atmospheric  pressure  for  22  to 
24  hours  at  a  temperature  ranging  from  230°  to  260°  Fahr..  This 
boiling  period  was  used  to  season  the  timber  and  prepare  it  for 
receiving  the  oil.  After*  the  boiling  period  was  completed,  pres- 
sure was  applied  beginning  with  zero  and  rising  as  high  as  145  to 
185  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  pressure  was  continued  over  a 
period  of  4  to  6  hours,  at  a  temperature  of  approximately  210° 
to  230°  Fahr..  By  this  method  10  to  14  pounds  of  oil  per  cubic 
foot  were  injected  into  the  wood. 

STEAMING  PROCESS 

The  timbers  were  placed  in  the  retort  in  a  thoroughly  green 
condition  and  steamed  at  90  pounds  per  square  inch  for  4  to  7 
hours  at  a  temperature  of  approximately  325°  to  335°  Fahr..  A 
vacuum  of  approximately  20  inches  was  then  applied  for  18  to  20 
hours  at  a  temperature  of  about  220°  Fahr..  At  the  end  of  the 
vacuum  period  creosote  oil  was  introduced  and  pressure  applied, 
rising  from  zero  up  to  160  pounds  per  square  inch.  This  press- 
ing period  was  continued  for  2  to  4  hours  at  a  temperature  of 
approximately  208°  Fahr..  Ten  to  14  pounds  of  oil  per  cubic  foot 
were  usually  injected  by  this  process. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  both  the  above  processes  high  tem- 
peratures were  applied.  The  temperature  used  in  the  boiling 
process  was  lower  than  that  used  in  the  steaming,  but  was 
applied  for  a  longer  period.  The  steaming  process  employed  a 
higher  temperature  for  a  shorter  period  of  time. 

In  recent  experiments  both  temperature  and  pressure  have 
been  reduced  and  the  vacuum  made  to  take  a  more  important 
part  in  the  process.  The  most  successful  treatment  yet  devised 
for  treating  bridge  stringers  and  similar  forms  without  loss  in 
strength  is  that  of  "boiling  under  a  vacuum."  When  green  tim- 
bers are  creosoted  by  this  method  the  treatment  requires  approxi- 
mately 26  hours,  and  is  in  general,  as  follows: 

BOILING   UNDER  A  VACUUM   PROCESS 

The  timbers  are  placed  in  the  retort  and  creosote  oil  intro- 
duced at  a  temperature  of  160°  to  180°  Fahr..  Heat  is  applied 
and  the  temperature  of  the  oil  gradually  raised  to  190°  Fahr. 
and  held  at  that  temperature  for  5  to  6  hours,  a  sufficient  length 
of  time  to  warm  the  timbers  through.  When  the  timbers  are 
thoroughly  warmed  a  vacuum  of  24  to  27  inches  is  drawn  on  the 
oil,  still  holding  a  temperature  of  190°  Fahr..  This  vacuum  is 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


drawn  through  an  overhead  pipe  extending  from  the  top  of  the 
retort  for  36  feet  vertically  into  the  air  and  returning  to  the  con- 
denser. The  purpose  of  this  pipe  is  to  prevent  the  creosote  oil 
from  boiling  over  into  the  condenser.  This  vacuum  is  started  at 
16  to  18  inches,  and  as  the  timber  seasons  is  gradually  raised  to 
24  to  27  inches.  The  full  period  of  vacuum  is  12  to  16  hours.  It 
is  continued  until  the  rate  of  seasoning  of  the  timber  is  1/10 
pound  of  water  per  cubic  foot  of  wood  perhour.  After  this  fin- 
ished rate  of  seasoning  is  reached  the  vacuum  is  broken  and  pres- 
sure on  the  oil  started,  which  rises  as  high  as  120  to  135  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  continues  over  a  period  of  4  to  6  hours.  The 
temperature  of  the  oil  during  the  pressure  period  drops  from 
190°  to  180°  Fahr..  By  this  process  10  to  14  pounds  of  oil  per 
cubic  foot  may  be  pressed  into  the  wood. 

This  method  of  treatment  is  a  slight  modification  of  the 
Boulton  process  and  at  the  low  temperatures  used  seasons  the 
wood  even  better  than  the  old  boiling  process,  which  employed 
so  much  higher  temperatures.  Timbers  treated  by  the  method 
of  boiling  under  a  vacuum  apparently  receive  the  creosote  oil 
more  readily  than  timbers  treated  under  the  old  boiling  process. 

BRIDGE  STRINGERS.  In  order  to  carry  the  test  still  further 
and  to  determine  the  effect  of  this  treatment  (Boiling  Under  a 
Vacuum)  on  the  strength  of  the  wood,  two  shipments  of  full- 
sized  bridge  stringers  were  selected,  and  treated  in  four  differ- 
ent charges.  These  stringers  were  of  three  sizes,  7"xl4"x28', 
7"xl6"x30'  and  10"xl4"x28'.  After  treatment  the  stringers  were 
shipped  to  Portland,  Oregon  and  tested  by  the  Bureau  of  Stan- 
dards. The  results  of  the  tests  are  shown  in  the  following 
report: 

City  of  Portland 

Department  of  Public  Works 

Bureau  of  Standards 

Report  of  bending  tests  of  creosoted  and  natural  stringers. 
Tested  for  O.  P.  M.  Goss,  consulting  engineer  for  the  Association 
of  Creosoting  Companies  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

PURPOSE.  The  purpose  of  these  tests  was  to  determine  the 
effect  of  creosoting  by  the  "Boiling  Under  a  Vacuum"  process  on 
the  strength  of  Douglas  fir  bridge  stringers  in  transverse  bending. 

MATERIAL.  The  material  consisted  of  merchantable  grade 
Douglas  fir  stringers  of  the  following  sizes: 

9—  7"xl4"x28' 
3—  7"xl6"x30' 
5— 10"xl4"x28' 

They  were  selected  so  that  the  two  halves  of  the  stringers 
were  of  as  nearly  equal  quality  as  it  was  possible  to  obtain. 


PACIFIC    COAST 


They  were  then  cut  in  the  middle  and  one-halt  treated  by  the 
above  process.  Both  natural  and  treated  halves  were  brought  to 
Portland,  and  tested  by  the  Bureau.  The  untreated  timbers  were 
tested  in  a  thoroughly  green  condition. 

One  of  the  7"xl6"xl5'  natural  stringers  and  the  correspond- 
ing treated  one  gave  unusually  low  results  when  tested.  Both 
the  natural  and  the  treated  stringers  were  cut  up  into  sections 
and  thoroughly  examined  after  test.  It  was  discovered  that  a 
heart  shake  was  present  in  both  pieces,  the  creosote  showing 
plainly  along  this  shake  in  the  treated  timber.  This  stringer 
failed  in  shear  along  this  shake  at  a  very  low  load,  alter  which 
this  load  increased  considerably  before  final  rupture  of  the  beam. 
The  result  of  the  tests  on  these  defective  stringers  are  therefore 
not  included  in  this  report,  failure  being  due  entirely  to  this 
defect  present  before  treatment. 

METHOD  OF  TEST.  The  method  of  testing  was  identical  with 
that  used  in  previous  tests  made  on  structural  timbers  by  the 
U.  S.  Forest  Service  and  described  in  Forest  Service  Circular  No. 
38  (Revised).  The  stringers  were  tested  on  a  150,000-pound  Uni- 
versal Riehle  machine  under  third  point  loading,  the  load  being 
applied  at  two  points,  each  one-third  the  length  of  the  span  from 
the  end  supports.  The  7"xl4"xl4'  and  the  10"xl4"xl4'  pieces 
were  tested  on  a  13-foot  span  and  the  7"xl6"15'  pieces 
on  a  span  of  14  feet.  The  load  was  applied  continuously, 
the  head  of  the  machine  descending  at  the  rate  of  0.139  inches 
per  minute,  and  the  load  increments  and  corresponding  deflections 
recorded.  The  manner  of  failure  at  maximum  load  was  noted  in 
each  case.  The  strength  values  were  computed  from  U.  S.  Forest 
Service  formulae  and  are  therefore  comparable  with  previous 
tests  on  structural  timber. 

After  the  tests  were  completed,  photographs  were  made  of 
identification  sections  taken  from  each  of  the  natural  and  treated 
stringers,  except  one  set  which  was  lost  through  a  misunder- 
standing. These  sections  show  the  quality  of  the  growth  in  the 
timbers  and  the  amount  of  penetration  secured  in  the  treated 
pieces.  The  tables*  and  diagrams*  complete  this  report.  Table 
13  contains  results  of  the  tests  on  the  7"xl4"xl4'  stringers  and 
shows  the  modulus  of  rupture  or  breaking  strength  of  the  treated 
material  to  be  101.2  per  cent  that  of  the  natural.  Table  14,  giv-, 
ing  strength  values  for  7"xl6"xl5'  stringers  shows  a  modulus  of 
rupture  for  the  treated  of  101.8  per  cent  of  the  corresponding 
natural.  Table  15  shows  results  of  the  10"xl4"xl4'  beams.  The 
untreated  material  had  a  slight  advantage  in  breaking  strength, 
the  treated  being  95  per  cent  as  strong  as  the  natural.  Table  16 
is  a  summary  of  the  preceding  tables  and  shows  the  average 
modulus  of  rupture  for  the  treated  stringers  of  all  sizes  to  be 
99.2  per  cent  that  of  the  natural  pieces.  The  following  diagrams 
show  the  results  of  the  individual  tests  and  a  record  of  the 
treatment  used.  The  graphs  for  the  natural  and  corresponding 
treated  stringers  are  given  side  by  side. 

•Refers  to  tables  13   to   16   and   diagrams   6   to   9. 


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LOAD    DEFLECTIO 


Diagram  8.     Load-deflection    diagrams    for    7"xl6"xl5'    Douglas    fir    brid-ge 
stringers,   natural   and   creosoted. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


il 

\ 

PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


These  tests  show  that  the  treatment  used  does  not  cause  any 
appreciable  loss  in  the  strength  of  full  size  bridge  stringers. 
Approved  by 
Signed    R.  G.  DIECK  Signed    R.  S.  DULIN 

Commissioner  of  Public  Works       Chief,  Bureau  of  Standards. 

Tables  13  to  16  and  diagrams  6  to  9  are  part  of  the  above 
report  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  City  of  Portland. 

The  results  of  the  above  tests  are  also  shown  graphically  in 
diagram  5.  The  untreated  timbers  were  arranged  in  order  of 
their  strength  based  on  the  modulus  of  rupture,  and  plotted  with 
the  strongest  timber  to  the  left  and  the  weakest  timber  to  the 
extreme  right  of  the  diagram.  Three  factors  are  shown,  as 
follows:  Modulus  of  Rupture; 

Fiber  Stress  at  Elastic  Limit; 
Modulus  of  Elasticity. 

The  results  of  the  treated  and  corresponding  natural  stringers 
are  plotted  on  the  same  vertical  line  and  are  very  close  together 
for  all  of  these  factors.  At  the  bottom  of  the  diagram  sections 
of  both  the  treated  and  untreated  stringers  are  shown.  These  sec- 
tions show  the  penetration  obtained,  and  give  an  idea  of  the  class 
of  material  used  in  these  tests.  The  minimum  penetration  was 
0.4  inch  and  the  maximum  2.25  inches  with  an  average  of  ap- 
proximately 1.2  inches. 

The  above  results  are  proof  that  Douglas  fir  bridge  stringers 
may  be  effectively  creosoted  without  injuring  the  strength,  a  fact 
Avhich  should  be  of  interest  to  railroads  and  others  consumers  of 
structural  timber. 

TIES.  The  volume  of  lumber  which  is  cut  annually  into 
railroad  ties  is  extremely  large.  There  is  perhaps  no  form  of 
timber  which  is  subjected  to  a  more  strenuous  test  than  a  rail- 
road tie.  In  the  first  place,  a  tie  is  so  placed  as  to  make  it  sub- 
ject to  attack  by  fungus.  In  the  second  place,  a  tie  is  stressed 
in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  grain.  Practically  no  test  on 
wood  shows  as  low  unit  strength  as  the  test  in  compression  per- 
pendicular to  the  grain.-  Therefore,  a  tie  in  order  to  best  serve 
its  purpose  should  at  all  times  retain  its  natural  strength. 

An  untreated  tie  shows  its  natural  strength  only  up  to  the 
point  when  it  begins  to  decay.  The  mechanical  life  of  a  Douglas 
fir  tie  of  good  grade  is  at  least- 15  years,  but  under  conditions 
found  in  the  ordinary  roadbed,  this  class  of  ties  will  decay  and 
become  useless  in  from  six  to  seven  years. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

In  an  effort  to  overcome  decay,  a  great  many  creosoted  Doug- 
las fir  ties  have  been  used.  These  ties,  however,  were  creosoted 
by  the  boiling  or  steaming  processes  both  of  which  employed 
high  temperatures  and  produced  a  weakening  of  30  to  40  per  cent 
in  the  strength  of  the  wood.  It  is  very  evident  that  this  weakening 
was  extremely  serious.  As  mentioned  before,  wood  is  weak  in 
compression  perpendicular  to  the  grain.  To  make  it  still  weaker 
by  methods  of  creosoting  which  injure  its  strength,  is  extremely 
objectionable  when  the  wood  is  to  be  used  in  the  form  of  ties. 
Many  ties  which  have  been  treated  by  the  use  of  high  tempera- 
tures and  placed  in  the  track  have  shown  weakness  in  resisting 
the  impact  of  railway  traffic.  Such  ties  have  shown  marked  im- 
provement in  their  durability,  but  great  weakness  against  me- 
chanical wear. 

In  view  of  the  above  facts,  the  West  Coast  Lumbermen's  Asso- 
ciation has  made  a  careful  study  of  this  subject  in  an  effort  to 
solve  the  difficulties.  Two  principal  points  have  been  held  in 
mind  during  the  experiments  made  to  date: 


Fig.  4.  A  machine  used  to  perforate  Douglas  fir  railway  ties  in  order  to 
better  distribute  the  preservative,  thus  securing  a  more  effective 
protection  against  decay.  These  perforations  make  the  treatment 
of  the  tie  possible  without  the  application  of  high  temperatures 
and  pressures. 


•fr 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


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A 


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-V  - 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


( J )  To  prolong  the  natural  life  of  Douglas  fir  ties  by  pre- 
servative treatment. 

(2)  To  apply  the  preservative  treatment  effectively  without 
injuring  the  strength  of  the  wood. 

The  accomplishment  of  the  above  points  will  produce  the  de- 
sired result,  since  Douglas  fir,  in  comparison  to  other  woods,  is 
very  strong  in  compression  perpendicular  to  the  grain. 

In  investigating  this  subject  an  effort  has  been  made  to  take 
advantage  of  the  fact  that  creosote  oil  enters  wood  along  the 
grain  with  very  much  greater  ease  than  in  any  other  direction. 
It  was  therefore  decided  to  perforate  the  timber  to  the  desired 
depth,  of  penetration  and  allow  the  oil  to  enter  the  wood  with  the 
least  possible  resistance.  The  question  which  naturally  arose 
was  whether  or  not  this  perforating  could  be  done  commercially. 

The  Columbia  Creosoting  Company  of  Portland,  Oregon,  took 
this  matter  up,  and  designed  and  built  a  machine  for  perforating 
ties.  The  photograph  on  page  50  gives  some  idea  of  the  design 
of  this  machine. 

The  machine  runs  at  a  speed  of  approximately  70  feet  per 
minute,  and  will  perforate  ties  as  rapidly  as  it  is  possible  for  la- 


Fig.  6.  A  piece  of  Douglas  fir  which  has  been  perforated  on  one  side  only. 
This  shows  that  by  means  of  perforations  the  penetration  and  dis- 
tribution of  creosote  oil  can  be  absolutely  controlled. 


62 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


nis 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

borers  to  handle  them.  The  vertical  rolls  perforate  the  sides,  and 
the  horizontal  rolls  the  top  and  bottom  faces.  The  ties  should, 
of  course,  be  bored  for  spikes  before  treatment. 

A  good  spacing  for  the  perforations  is  shown  by  Fig.  5.  It 
will  be  noted  that  these  perforations  are  so  arranged  that  it  is 
only  necessary  for  the  creosote  to  pass  along  the  grain  a  distance 
of  3%  inches  from  each  perforation,  in  order  to  give  complete 
penetration  on  all  faces  of  the  tie,  to  a  depth  equal  to  that  of 
the  perforations. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  results  of  creosoting  perforated  Douglas  fir. 
One  side  of  the  specimen  shown  was  perforated  and  the  other 
side  was  treated  in  its  natural  condition.  Note  the  even  dis- 
tribution of  oil  in  the  perforated  side  and  the  increased  depth  of 
penetration. 

The  question  as  to  the  effect  of  the  perforating  upon  the 
strength  of  the  wood  came  up  immediately  for  consideration. 
For  the  purpose  of  securing  reliable  data  on  this  point,  strength 
tests  were  made  on  ties  in  both  the  natural  and  treated  condi- 
tions. 

Table  17  gives  results  of  tests  on  three  classes  of  material, 
namely,  air-seasoned,  natural,  unperforated-creosoted  and  perfor- 
ated-creosoted.  The  creosoted  ties  were  treated  by  the  "Boiling 
Under  Vacuum  Process." 

The  average  results  of  these  tests  show  the  creosoted  sec- 
tions to  be  stronger  than  the  natural. 

In  order  to  secure  additional  data  on  this  subject  it  was  de- 
cided to  make  further  tests  on  ties  perforated  and  treated  by  this 
method.  The  following  report  on  the  results  of  these  tests  gives 
reliable  data  on  the  effect  of  this  method  of  perforating  upon  the 
strength  of  Douglas  fir  ties. 

City  of  Portland 
Department  of  Public  Works 

Bureau  of  Standards 

Report  of  side  compression  test  of  creosoted  tie  sections. 
Tested  for  O.  P.  M.  Goss,  consulting  engineer  for  the  Association 
of  Creosoting  Companies  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

PURPOSE.  To  determine  the  effect  of  perforations  on  the 
strength  of  creosoted  railroad  tie  sections  in  compression  perpen- 
dicular to  the  grain. 

MATERIAL.     The  material  consisted  of  Douglas  fir,  merchan- 
table grade,  of  the  following  dimensions: 
10— 10"x4i£"x5'. 
One-half  of   each   tie   was   perforated   the   other   half   Demg 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


unperforated.  They  were  selected  so  that  the  two  halves  of  each 
tie  were  of  as  nearly  equal  quality  as  it  was  possible  to  obtain. 
Each  tie  was  treated  by  the  "Boiling  Under  a  Vacuum  Process." 
After  treatment  the  20  sections  were  brought  to  Portland,  Oregon, 
and  tested  by  the  Bureau.  The  test  was  applied  to  the  cor- 
responding side  in  each  pair. 

METHOD  OF  TESTS.  The  tie  sections  were  tested  on  a  150,000 
pound  Universal  Riehle  Testing  Machine.  The  specimen  was 
placed  on  the  bed  of  the  testing  machine  and  a  steel  compression 
plate  8"xl2"xl1/4"  was  placed  crosswise  on  the  specimen.  A 
10-inch  spherical  compression  tool  was  placed  between  the  head 
of  the  testing  machine  and  the  steel  compression  plate  to  insure 
equal  distribution  of  the  load.  The  dimensions  of  the  specimens 
were  taken  at  the  center  directly  under  the  compression  plate, 


Diagram  10.  Load-deflection  diagrams  for  creosoted  Douglas  fir  ties,  per- 
forated and  unperforated.  Tests  made  in  compression 
perpendicular  to  grain. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S    ASSOCIATION 


Diagram  11.  Load-deflection  diagrams  for  creosoted  Douglas  fir  ties,  per- 
forated and  unperforated.  Tests  made  in  compression 
perpendicular  to  grain. 

being  averages  of  two  readings.  The  area  of  compression  was  8 
inches  times  the  width  of  the  specimen.  An  initial  load  of  1,000 
pounds  was  applied  to  each  section,  after  which  the  deflection 
reading  apparatus,  an  Olsen  Improved  Deflectometer  reading  to 
0.001  of  an  inch,  was  adjusted  to  zero  reading  when  the  load 
was  applied  continuously  to  well  beyond  the  yield  point.  The  rate 
of  application  of  the  load  was  0.046  inch  per  minute. 

RESULTS.     The  load   deflection   diagrams*   and  table*   of  re- 
sults are  attached. 

Date  of  Tests:     Tests  made  on  November  26  and  27,  1915. 
Observers : 

Oscar  Beck  John  O.  Baker 

Approved  by 

Signed     R.  G.  DIECK  Signed     R.  S.  DULIX 

Commissioner  of  Public  Works        Chief,  Bureau  of  Standards 


•Refers  to  diagrams   10 


id   11 


id  to  table  IS. 


56 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


RESULTS    OF    TESTS    IN    COMPRESSION    PERPENDICULAR    TO 
GRAIN  ON  CRKOSOTED  DOUGLAS  FIR  TIE  SECTIONS 


Tests  made  by  th( 

TABLE  18 


10"x4.5"x2'-6" 
Bureau  of  Standards,   Portland,  Oregon. 


Compressive  Strength  at  Elastic  Limit  per  Sq.  In. 

Tie 
Number 

Rings  per  Inch 

Unperformed 

Perforated 

Strength  of  Perforated 
in  Per  Cent  of  Unperf  orated. 

L'nperforated 

Perforated 

Unperforated  =  100  per  cent 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Per  Cent 

j 

6 

6 

419 

481 

114.8 

78 

9 

9 

350 

376 

107.5 

79 

9 

9 

765 

900 

117.6 

82 

7 

7 

545 

631 

115.8 

83 

6 

6 

523 

512 

97.9 

88 

6 

6 

616 

666 

108.1 

90 

9 

9 

366 

480 

131.1 

91 

5 

5 

375 

595 

158.6 

93 

7 

7 

555 

590 

106.3 

96 

7 

7 

670 

845 

126.1 

Average  

7.1 

7.1 

518 

608 

117.4 

The  table  of  results  contained  in  this  report  shows  the  per- 
forated ties  to  be  117.4  per  cent  as  strong  as  the  unperforated. 
In  only  one  individual  case  is  the  unperforated  piece  stronger 
than  the  corresponding  perforated  section  and  in  most  instances 
the  increase  in  strength  due  to  perforation  is  marked.  Thorough 
penetration  was  secured  in  all  the  ties  by  means  of  this  method 
of  perforation.  These  results  correspond  very  closely  to  previous 
tests  on  perforated  material  and  prove  that  by  the  proper  method 
of  perforation  it  is  possible  to  creosote  Douglas  fir  ties,  distrib- 
uting the  oil  where  wanted  and  without  loss  in  strength  in  the 
wood. 

A  good  method  of  preparing  for  the  treatment  of  railroad 
ties  of  Douglas  fir  or  western  hemlock  would  be  as  follows: 

Cut  ties  in  winter  and  early  spring.  Perforate  and  open- 
pile  for  air  seasoning,  taking  advantage  of  the  summer  months. 
The  ties  may  then  be  treated  during  the  fall  and  winter.  Handling 
ties  in  this  way  will  insure  an  absolute  protection  against  decay, 
and  will  enable  the  wood  to  be  creosoted  without  loss  in  mechani- 
cal strength.  These  two  points  will  insure  the  greatest  value 
possible  in  the  way  of  service,  from  this  form  of  material. 

SPIKE  PULLING  TESTS.  The  relative  value  of  the  various 
species  of  wood  used  for  ties  has  been  the  cause  of  considerable 
discussion  in  the  past,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  holding 


57 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

power  of  railroad  spikes  in  these  woods.  With  the  increasing 
use  of  creosoted  ties  the  screw  spike  is  likewise  becoming  more 
popular,  as  the  increased  length  of  life  of  treated  ties  warrants 
the  use  of  a  more  permanent  method  of  rail  fastening. 

In  order  to  determine  the  holding  force  of  spikes  under  vari- 
ous conditions  in  natural  and  treated  timber,  the  Seattle  Timber 
Testing  Laboratory  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  recently  made  a 
series  of  spike  pulling  tests  on  natural  and  creosoted  commercial 
Douglas  fir  railway  ties.  Permission  to  publish  the  results  of 
these  tests  has  been  granted  through  the  courtesy  of  the  Forest 
Service. 

The  test  material  consisted  of  18  commercial  grade  Douglas 
fir  ties,  two  sections  of  each  tie  being  used  for  these  tests.  Both 
common  and  screw  spikes  were  pulled  from  these  sections,  one 
of  which  was  green  and  the  other  creosoted.  Holes  ranging  in 
size  from  %  to  %  inch  were  bored  in  each  tie,  those  in  the 
creosoted  ties  being  bored  before  treatment. 

Table  19  contains  the  complete  results  of  these  tests. 

The  following  points  are  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
use  of  this  table: 

(1)  The  form  of  the  point  of  the  common  spike  is  such  that 
it  inclines  not  to  follow  the  hole. 

(2)  Care  was  exercised  in  these  tests  to  have  the  spikes  fol- 
low the  holes. 

(3)  If  the   holes   are   not   too   large    (three-eights   inch   or 
seven-sixteenths  inch)  and  the  spikes  follow  the  holes  closely  the 
resistance  to  withdrawal  will  usually  be  increased. 

(4)  If   spikes    do   not   follow   the   holes   the   resistance    to 
withdrawal  may  be  greatly  reduced. 

(5)  Spikes  driven  close  to  the  holes  but  not  into  them  will 
have  their  resistance  lowered. 

(6)  The  splitting  of  the  tie  and  the  breaking  of  the  fiber  is 
reduced  when  the  spikes  are  driven  into  bored  holes. 

In  the  tests  on  the  holding  power  of  common  spikes  the 
results  for  the  treated  and  natural  material  show  very  little  dif- 
ference. In  the  natural  wood  the  spikes  driven  into  the  %-inch 
holes  showed  the  greatest  holding  power,  while  in  the  treated 
those  driven  into  the  %-inch  holes  required  the  greatest  force  to 
pull  them  from  the  timber.  The  screw  spikes,  which  were  placed 
in  %-inch  holes,  pulled  considerably  harder  from  the  creosoted 
than  from  the  natural  ties. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


H  < 

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S  w 

03  H 


II  I 


I 


5 

£ 

2         "8 


3 

O 

-  ~ 

g       5 

6 

-  a 


.¥ 


.¥ 


H 


£   A 


r   -r-  -^  - ;  .j:        :_- 


2ffS§S8|8S§!fg!J 


lilil 


in 


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SO 


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iwl 


c  o  o  us  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  q  p  o  10  o  c  o 
''' 


SSSSSSS? 


lOOOOOOOCOOOO 


c:  '-:  : 
-r  —  - 


'-  r-  r  - 
-*io« 
O  C  C 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

The  results  of  these  tests  together  with  those  on  the  perfora- 
tion of  Douglas  fir  show  marked  progress  in  the  preservation  and 
utilization  of  creosoted  Douglas  fir  railway  ties  and  should  en- 
courage the  use  of  this  wood  for  tie  purposes,  to  which  it  is 
unusually  well  adapted. 


FORMULAE  FOR  RECTANGULAR  BEAMS 

The  symbols  below  are  used  in  all  the  following  formulae: 

Z  =  Length  of  span,  in  inches. 

b  =  Width  of  beam,  in  inches.  (In  mill  and  laminated  floor 
computations,  b  =  12  inches.) 

h  =  Height  of  beam,  in  inches. 

V  =  Maximum  vertical  shear,  in  pounds. 

J  =  Maximum  unit  horizontal  shear,  in  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

J'  =  Allowable  unit  horizontal  shear  (any  safe  value),  in 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

I  =  Moment  of  inertia  of  cross  section  of  beam  about  neutral 
axis,  in  inches4. 

A  =  Area  of  cross  section  of  beam,  in  square  inches. 

S  =  Section  modulus,  in,  inches3. 

n  =  Distance  from  neutral  axis  to  extreme  fiber  in  inches.  For 
a  rectangular  beam  this  equals  one-half  the  height  of  beam. 

f  =  Safe  unit  stress,  extreme  fiber,  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

E  =  Modulus  of  elasticity,  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

d  =  Maximum  deflection,  in  inches. 

D  =  Deflection  equivalent  to  J*  inch  per  foot  of  span. 

w  =  Load  on  beam  per  foot  of  span,  in  pounds. 

W  =  Total  load  on  beam  (  -pj-  \  ,  in  pounds. 

M=:  Maximum  external  bending  moment;  also  the  internal 
resisting  moment  of  the  beam  cross  section;  in  inch  pounds. 

L'  =  Total  floor  load  per  square  foot,  in  pounds.  Equals  live 
load  per  square  foot  plus  weight  of  floor  per  square  foot.  Used  in 
computing  maximum  span  tables  for  mill  and  laminated  floors. 


MAXIMUM   UNIT   HORIZONTAL   SHEAR   IN   RECTANGULAR 

BEAMS 

When  a  beam  is  loaded  the  horizontal  shear  which  is  devel- 
oped produces  a  tendency  to  split  along  the  neutral  axis*.  The 
formula  for  maximum  unit  horizontal  shear  in  a  rectangular 
beam  is:  /  V  \ 

J  -  1.5  I  in:  I 


*  The  neutral  axis  of  a  rectangular  beam  Is  in  a   plane  separating  the  upper 
and  lower  halves  when  the  beam  is  horirontal. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


When  a  rectangular  beam  is  symmetrically  loaded  the  maxi- 
mum vertical  shear,  V,  is  (  y  j  and  therefore  the  maximum  unit 
horizontal  shear  is: 

J  =  0.75  (j^) 

From  this  formula  it  is  seen  that  the  maximum  unit  hori- 
zontal shear  varies  directly  with  the  load.  For  a  given  fiber  stress 
"f"  (say  1,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.),  developed  in  a  beam,  the  safe 
load,  W,  for  center  loading  is  one-half  that  for  uniform  loading, 
and  for  third-point  loading  it  is  three-fourths  of  that  for  uniform 
loading.  Therefore,  the  maximum  unit  horizontal  shear  for  cen- 
ter loading  is  one-half  of  the  horizontal  shear  for  uniform  load- 
ing and  for  third-point  loading  it  is  three-fourths  of  that  for  uni- 
form loading. 

SAFE  LOADS  LIMITED  BY  HORIZONTAL  SHEAR 

The  safe  load,  W,  in  pounds,  on  a  beam,  limited  by  any  given 
safe  unit  horizontal  shearing  stress,  J',  pounds  per  square  inch, 
may  be  found  by  the  formula: 

w       J'bh 
W  =  0~75 

SAFE  LOADS  ON  BEAMS   (CONSIDERING  BENDING  ONLY) 
CENTER  LOADING: 


THIRD  POINT  LOADING: 

S  —  ( 


T  _  6fl  _  6f  /bh_2\  _  /fbh2\ 
^   ~    In    ~    I   \  6  )  ~  \    I    ) 


UNIFORM  LOADING: 


8fl       8f  /bh2\        1  /fbh2 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

MAXIMUM   DEFLECTION    IN   BEAMS 

The  following  formulae  apply  only  within  the  elastic,  limit 
of  the  beam: 
CENTER  LOADING: 


THIRD  POINT  LOADING: 

_  (  &\    (Wl\  _  /  23  \  /Wl»[12]\  _  /_23_\   /  Wl»\ 
~  ^1296^    V  El  /  ~  \1296j  \    Ebh3   )  "  \108/  \~Ebh3) 

UNIFORM  LOADING: 

_  (JL\    (m>\  _  /_5_\    (Vfl*[12]\  _  /_5_\ 
~  \384j    \  El  )  ~  \K&)    \    Ebh3    )  "  V32/ 

MAXIMUM  SPAN—  MILL  AND  LAMINATED  FLOORS 
CENTER  LOADING: 

fl       WZ  4f/I\       Ty-;  /bh2\ 

n   =  T  '••  Z  =  wn      -  T- 


=      7          = 

THIRD  POINT  LOADING: 


=  = 

UNIFORM  LOADING: 

fI_W?  8fl 

n   ~    8    •'•  W  =  In" 


?f    /I\  _  8f  /bh^X  _  _4  fbh2 
W\n/"W\6/"3    W 


16fbh 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


DEFLECTIONS  IN  MILL  AND   LAMINATED   FLOORS 
CENTER  LOADING: 


/J\    /12L'''\  1 

-  V43/    V    Ebh»    /     :=    (48)    (1,643, 


643,000) 


12 
d  =  0.000,000,012,68 

THIRD  POINT  LOADING: 


'\ 


23 


_ 

Ebh3   I     =    (1296)    (1,643,000)    \  bh 
12    / 


3/ 


d  =  0.000,000,010,8  I  TT^ 
\  on" 

UNIFORM  LOADING: 
d 


/  5  W  W/3 

=  V384M^r 


_  ^A\      ~12" 
"  V384/   I     E 


Ebh3 
12 


L/ 


(384)  (1 


_/L'i°i 
,  643,000)  \  bh3  ) 


d  =  0.000,000,007,92 


BENDING  MOMENT  AND   SHEAR 

The  following  bending  moment  and  shear  diagrams  are  shown 
for  cantilever  beams  and  for  free  end  beams  supported  at  the  two 
ends.  Various  methods  of  loading  are  shown  for  each  type  of 
beam.  The  bending  moment  and  shear  diagrams  are  shown 
above  and  below  the  beams,  respectively. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


0  Btam  support*/ 

aac/  foncfatrotet/  /oac/ op- 
/ite/  at  center. 


Mat/mum  6enJir;f  moment 
g         /y  occurs  atftnttr  of 
^         .900/7  ana?  =     &3 . 


(£)   Beam  suayarM  at  Jttt/i 
ffte/s  oat/tiro  concentro/eJ 


3      k    ? 


of  span  . 

Max/mum 
/y  o 
poin 


rn     /y  oceurs    rHsfe 
/ooj    oints  or?d  '=     *^. 


5*^-77    supper M*f  loth 
ertdj    unitor/rr/u  Joac/ed. 


Majr/nrum  6enJinq  fftorrt- 

occurs  ate  fa  - 
ter  of  spot?    a/rd '  =.  *§r  . 


tical 


Diagram   12.     Bending   moment   and   shear  diagram 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


urisy/nmetrico/ 
concert  trtrteo'  /oad  appl/ed. 


Maximum  Aert^/ny  moment 
M.  occurs  at  point 


beam  trrf/l  con- 


1 


Man/mum  bene/inq  mom- 
ent M  occurs  at  filed 

end 'and '.  >^/ . 


Maximum  vertical sAtat 


Maximum  Aenaf/no  moment 
rs  at  •fixed '  enof 


Diagram   13.     Bending  moment   and  shear  diagrai 


THE     WEST     COAST     LUMI'.KUMEX'S     ASSOCIATION 


saqou|  ui  AU 
^         S/ 

-  *»*      J! 

1     1    1     1  1  l/llllllll 


spunoj  -  400-1 

UI 


pUDSMOm 


n 


•ui  'bs  Jdd  -     ui 


<         I 

*J  -3 


i  ! 


5    t 

Q 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


Figure  7  is  a  chart  taken  from  Engineering  Record  of  June 
26,  1915,  and  makes  possible,  rapid  calculations  for  rectangular 
timber  beams.  Assume  a  working  stress  of  2000  pounds/sq. 
in.  and  it  is  desired  to  find  a  beam  of  sufficient  size  to  resist  a 
bending  moment  of  50,000  foot  pounds.  Place  a  straight  edge  on 
2000  on  the  "Extreme  Fiber  Stress"  scale  and  allow  it  to  pass 
through  50  on  the  scale  "Moment  in  Thousand  Foot-pounds"  and 
project  to  an  intersection  on  the  "Factor  A"  scale.  Place  the 
straight  edge  on  this  intersection  point  on  "Factor  A"  scale  as  a 
pivot  and  read  the  width  of  beam  required  on  the  "Width  in 
Inches"  scale  and  the  corresponding  height  of  beam  on  the  "Depth 
in  Inches"  scale.  Any  number  of  combinations  of  sizes  may  be 
selected  which  will  fulfill  the  conditions  assumed.  The  above 
operation  may  be  reversed  if  the  designer  wishes  to  start  with 
a  definite  size  timber. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


SAFE  TOTAL  LOADS  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES 
OF  BEAMS 

In  the  preparation  of  table  20  on  beams,  an  effort  has  been 
made  to  tabulate  information  which  will  enable  the  designer  to 
effect  his  design  with  minimum  effort  and  maximum  efficiency. 
The  figures  in  the  tables  are  based  on  beams  of  actual  sizes  sur- 
faced S1S1E  or  S4S.  A  multiplying  factor  has  also  been  computed 
which  may  be  used  to  transfer  rapidly  the  various  loads,  deflec- 
tions, and  other  properties  to  the  corresponding  values  for  rough 
beams  of  full  sizes  as  shown.  These  factors  are  written  in  bold 
face  type  for  each  size  timber,  and  apply  to  figures  in  the  same 
vertical  column  written.  In  this  table,  the  area  of  cross  section,  the 
moment  of  inertia  of  the  cross  section,  the  section  modulus,  the 
span  and  the  ratio  of  span  to  depth  of  beam  are  given,  all  for 
actual  sizes  of  surfaced  timbers.  The  safe  loads  and  correspond- 
ing maximum  deflections  for  uniformly  distributed  loads  are  also 
given,  covering  a  range  of  safe  fiber  stresses  varying  from  1,000 
to  2,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  safe  load,  as  shown,  is  the 
superimposed  load,  the  weight  of  the  beam  having  been  deducted. 
The  deflection  given  is  that  produced  by  the  safe  load  shown  plus 
the  weight  of  the  beam.  The  deflections  are  computed  for  beams 
of  Douglas  fir  using  a  modulus  of  elasticity  of  1,643,000  pounds 
per  square  inch.  This  value  for  the  modulus  of  elasticity  was 
determined  by  a  careful  consideration  of  all  available  data  on 
the  stiffness  of  Douglas  fir  as  shown  by  the  following  tests: 


Reference  — 

U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin  108, 
U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin  108, 
U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin     88, 
City  of  Portland,   Oregon,  Bureau 
Am.  By.  Eng.  Assn.  Bulletin  184, 

table 
table 
table 
of  Sti 
table 

8    , 

No.  of 
Grade            Tests 
Grade  I                81 
All  Grades          134 
Select                   69 
Merch.                   16 
Santa  Fe  Stand.   52 

Average 
M.  of  E. 
1,643,000 
1,611,000 
1,654,000 
1,713.000 
1,701,900 

14  
8  
ndards  — 
4  

Total     342Av.l,645.0OO 

The  above  values  include  a  large  number  of  tests  that  are  of 
an  average  grade  below  that  used  in  general  construction  work 
and  below  that  proposed  by  the  West  Coast  Lumbermen's  Associa- 
tion on  pages  31  and  33.  The  only  values  falling  below  that  used 
in  this  book  are  for  those  tests  in  which  timbers  of  all  grades 
were  included.  The  remaining  tests,  representing  average  grades, 
show  the  figure  for  the  modulus  of  elasticity  of  1,643.000  herein 
used  to  be  conservative. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


There  is  also  shown  in  table  20  the  number  of  pounds  sup- 
ported by  the  actual  sized  beam  per  board  foot  of  rough  lumber. 
This  may  be  termed  "Efficiency  Factor."  This  factor  should  be 
useful  in  determining  an  economical  design.  The  higher  the 
factor  the  greater  is  the  efficiency  of  the  beam. 

In  this  table  no  loads  are  given  which  produce  maximum 
horizontal  shearing  stresses  of  more  than  185  pounds  per  square 
inch,  which  unit  stresses  are  justified  as  shown  by  the  tests  given 
on  pages  18  and  19.  The  maximum  unit  horizontal  shearing 
stresses  actually  produced  by  those  loads  supported  on  the  shorter 
spans  are  given  for  each  size  beam.  The  values  for  longer  spans 
will  be  lower. 

The  column  "D,"  farthest  to  the  right,  shows  deflections 
equivalent  to  ^  of  an  inch  per  foot  of  span. 

Deflections   are   proportional    to   loads,    therefore,   the    ratio 

(_  ~?^9 ^    is  constant  for  a  given  beam  section  and  span.   To 
Deflection/ 

find  the  load  (W)  corresponding  to  any  deflection,  (d'),  within 
the  elastic  limit  and  which  is  not- shown  in  the  tables,  divide  the 
"given  load  (W)  plus  weight  of  beam"  by  "given  deflection  (d)," 
and  multiply  the  result  by  the  particular  deflection  in  question 
(d'),  and  subtract  the  weight  of  beam. 

(W  +  weight  of  beam)   =  (W7  +  weight  of  beam)  _  Constant 

d  d' 

therefore  W  =   j"(W_+_weight  of  beam) jd/  _  (weight  Qf 

Usually  in  practice  the  weight  of  the  beam  in  the  above  compu- 
tation may  be  neglected,  which  will  simplify  the  operation  to 
dividing  the  given  load  by  the  given  deflection  and  multiplying 
the  result  by  the  particular  deflection  to  secure  the  new  load. 

For  safe  loads  on  beams  in  which  a  concentrated  load  is  ap- 
plied at  the  center  of  the  span,  multiply  the  load  given  in  the 
table  by  0.50.  For  safe  loads  on  beams  in  which  equal  concen- 
trated loads  are  applied  at  the  third  points  of  the  span,  multiply 
the  given  load  by  0.75. 

For  deflections  in  beams  in  which  a  concentrated  load  equal 
to  one-half  that  shown  in  the  table  is  applied  at  the  center  of  the 
span,  multiply  the  deflection  given  in  the  table  by  0.802.  For 
deflections  in  beams  in  which  equal  concentrated  loads  totaling 
three-fourths  that  shown  in  the  table,  are  applied  at  the  third 
points  of  the  span,  multiply  the  given  deflection  by  1.025. 


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PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


SAFE  TOTAL  LOADS  FOR  BEAMS,  LIMITED  BY 

HORIZONTAL  SHEAR— ALSO  SAFE 

VERTICAL  SHEAR 

Table  21  has  been  computed  to  show  the  safe  loads  on  beams 
determined  by  the  resistance  to  horizontal  shear.  Shearing  values 
varying  from  100  to  225  pounds  per  square  inch  have  been  used 
and  are  computed  for  beams  surfaced  S1S1E  or  S4S.  If  desirable 
to  find  the  corresponding  values  for  full  size  beams  (rough)  mul- 
tiply loads  in  any  horizontal  line  in  the  table  by  the  factor  given 
in  bold  face  type  in  the  column  headed  "Multiplying  Factor." 

Example:  To  find  the  load  on  a  12"xl8"  rough  timber  lim- 
ited by  a  horizontal  shear  of  100  pounds  per  square  inch.  The 
table  shows  such  a  load  to  be  26,830  pounds  for  a  beam  surfaced 
to  standard  size.  Multiply  26,830  by  1.07,  shown  in  bold  face  type 
in  the  column  headed  "Multiplying  Factor,"  and  the  limiting  load 
required  for  a  full  size  timber  is  found  to  be  28,710  pounds. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


SAFE    LOADS    IN    POUNDS    UNIFORMLY    DISTRIBUTED    FOR 

DOUGLAS  FIR  BEAMS — DETERMINED  BY  RESISTANCE 

TO    HORIZONTAL    SHEAR 

Jbh 

Safe  Load  in  pounds  =  W  = ,  shown  In  light  face  type. 

0.75 

Also 

SAFE    VERTICAL     SHEAR    IN    POUNDS     FOR     DOUGLAS     FIR 
BEAMS — DETERMINED    BY    RESISTANCE    TO 
•HORIZONTAL   SHEAR 
W  Jbh 

Safe  Vertical   Shear  In   pounds  =  —  =  V  =  ,   shown   in   Italics. 

2  1.50 

Values  in  this  table  are  based  on  surfaced  sizes.     To  get  values  for 

rough  sizes,  multiply  factor  for  any  given  size  by  number 

in  bold  face  type. 

TABLE   21  *  See  page  34 


•  Size 

Total  Safe  Loads  and  Safe  Vertical  Shear  in  Pounds  Limited  by 

Horizontal  Shear  in  Founds  per  Square  Inch  as  Indicated 

Surfaced 

Multi- 

Rough 

S1S1E 

R.R. 

Highway 

Pro- 

orS4S 

Factor 

120* 

150* 

tected 

100 

Struet- 

125 

Struct- 

175* 

200 

225 

Struct- 

In. 

In. 

ures 

2x  4 

ijix  y>A 

1.36 

785 

942 

981 

1178 

1374 

1570 

1766 

393 

471 

491 

589 

687 

785 

883 

2x  6 

l/^x  554 

1.31 

1219 

1463 

1524 

1828 

2133 

2438 

2743 

610 

732 

762 

914 

1067 

1219 

1372 

2x  8 

l!J4x  7V£ 

1.31 

1625 

1950 

2031 

2438 

2844 

3250 

3656 

813 

975 

1016 

1219 

14S2 

1625 

1828 

2x10 

1/^x  9/4 

1.30 

2059 

2470 

2574 

3083 

3603 

4118 

4633 

1030 

1235 

1287 

1545 

1802 

2059 

2317 

2x12 

l^xll1^ 

1.29 

2491 

2990 

3114 

3737 

4359 

4982 

5605 

1246 

1495 

1557 

1869 

2180 

2491 

2803 

2x14 

l^xlS1-^ 

1.28 

2925 

3510 

3656 

4388 

5119 

5850 

6581 

1463 

1755 

1828 

2194 

2560 

2925 

3291 

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4199 

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5878 

6718 

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2520 

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2293 

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3210 

3668 

4127 

917 

1100 

1147 

1376 

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1834 

2064 

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2/4x  7V4 

1.28 

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3000 

3125 

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5000 

5625 

1250 

1500 

1563 

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2188 

2500 

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2/4x  914 

1.26 

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3800 

3960 

4752 

5544 

6336 

7128 

75S4 

1900 

1980 

2376 

2772 

3168 

3564 

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2V4xll}4 

1.25 

3833 

4600 

4791 

5750 

6708 

7666 

8624 

1917 

2300 

2396 

2875 

5354 

3833 

4312 

3x14 

214*13/4 

1  25 

4500 

5400 

5625 

6750 

7875 

9000 

10125 

#250 

2700 

2813 

3375 

3938 

4500 

5063 

3x16 

2}4xl5V£ 

1.24 

5167 

6200 

6459 

7751 

9042 

10334 

11626 

2584 

3100 

3230 

3876 

4521 

5167 

5813 

3x18 

234x1714 

1.23 

5835 

7000 

7294 

8753 

10211 

11670 

13129 

29JS 

3500 

3647 

4S77 

5106 

5835 

6565 

4x  4 

3)4*  3M 

1.31 

1633 

1960 

2041 

2450 

2858 

3266 

3674 

sir 

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1021 

1225 

1429 

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3209 

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4492 

5134 

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2246 

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(Table  21  Continued  on   Next   Page.) 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


TABLE  21—  Continued. 

Size 

Total  Safe  Loads  and  Safe  Vertical  Shear  in  Pounds  Limited  by 

Surfaced 

Multi- 

o tai  onear  in  .rounds  per  square  incn  as  indicated 

Rough 

S1S1E 
orS4S 

plying 
Factor 

R.  R. 
120* 

Highway 
150* 

Pro- 
tected 

100 

Struct- 

125 

Struct- 

175* 

200 

225 

In. 

In. 

ures 

4x  8 

3^x  IVi 

1  22 

3500 

4200 

4375 

5250 

6125 

7000 

7875 

1750 

2100 

2188 

2625 

3063 

3500 

3938 

4x10 

3^x  9>i 

1  20 

4432 

5320 

5540 

6648 

7756 

8864 

9972 

23  ie 

2660 

2770 

3324 

3878 

4432 

4986 

4x12 

3^xll>4 

1.19 

5368 

6440 

6710 

8052 

9394 

10736 

12078 

2684 

3220 

3355 

4026 

4697 

5368 

6039 

4x14 

3^x13^ 

1.19 

6300 

7560 

7875 

9450 

11025 

12600 

14175 

3/50 

3780 

3938 

4725 

5513 

6300 

7088 

4x16 

3>4xl5}i 

1.18 

7234 

8680 

9043 

10851 

12660 

14468 

16277 

3617 

4340 

4522 

5426 

6330 

7234 

8139 

4x18 

3J^17^ 

1.18 

8165 

9800 

10206 

12248 

14289 

16330 

18371 

4083 

4900 

5103 

6124 

7/4-5 

8166 

9186 

6x  6 

5^x  5*A 

1.19 

4067 

4880 

5084 

6101 

7117 

8134 

9151 

2034 

2440 

2542 

3051 

3559 

4067 

4576 

6x  8 

5^x  71A 

1  16 

5500 

6600 

6875 

8250 

9625 

11000 

12375 

2760 

3300 

3438 

4/25 

4813 

5500 

6188 

6x10 

5^x  m 

1.15 

6965 

8360 

8706 

10448 

12189 

13930 

15671 

3483 

4180 

4353 

5224 

6095 

6965 

7836 

6x12 

SM*U1A 

1.14 

8435 

10120 

10544 

12653 

14761 

16870 

18979 

4218 

5060 

5272 

6327 

7381 

8436 

9490 

6x14 

VAxWA 

1.13 

9900 

11880 

12375 

14850 

17325 

19800 

22275 

4950 

5940 

6188 

7425 

8663 

9900 

11138 

6x16 

5^x15^ 

1.13 

11366 

13650 

14208 

17049 

19891 

22732 

25574 

5683 

6825 

7104 

8525 

9946 

11366 

12787 

6x18 

5H*17^ 

1.12 

12835 

15400 

16044 

19253 

22461 

25670 

28879 

6418 

7800 

8022 

9627 

11231 

12836 

14440 

6x20 

5J4xl9H 

1.12 

14300 

17160 

17875 

21450 

25025 

28600 

32175 

7160 

8580 

8938 

10725 

12513 

14300 

16088 

8x  8 

7^  7M 

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11250 

13125 

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11400 

11875 

14250 

16625 

19000 

21375 

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5700 

6938 

7125 

8313 

9500 

10688 

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7lA*wA 

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11500 

13800 

14375 

17250 

20125 

23000 

25875 

5750 

6900 

7188 

8625 

10063 

11600 

12938 

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16200 

16875 

20250 

23625 

27000 

30375 

6750 

8100 

8438 

10125 

11813 

13500 

15188 

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•ty&wA 

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15500 

18600 

19375 

23250 

27125 

31000 

34875 

7750 

9300 

9688 

11625 

13563 

15500 

17438 

8x18 

71A*WA 

1.10 

17500 

21000 

21875 

26250 

30625 

35000 

39375 

S750 

10500 

10938 

13125 

15313 

17500 

19688 

8x20 

7Kxl9J£ 

1.09 

19500 

23400 

24375 

29250 

34125 

39000 

43875 

9750 

11700 

12188 

14625 

17063 

19500 

21938 

10x10 

9Mx9^i 

1.11 

12037 

14450 

15046 

18056 

21065 

24074 

27083 

6019 

7225 

7523 

9028 

10533 

12037 

13542 

10x12 

VAzlVA 

1.10 

14568 

17490 

18210 

21852 

25494 

29136 

32778 

7284 

S745 

9105 

10926 

12747 

14568 

16389 

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20520 

21375 

25650 

29925 

34200 

38475 

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10260 

10688 

12825 

14963 

17100 

19238 

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29640 

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43225 

49400 

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72350 

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15438 

18625 

21613 

24700 

27788 

(Table  21  Concluded  on  Next  Page.) 

i                 '        ' 

217 


THE     WEST     COAST     I,ITMUKUMKX\S     ASSOCIATION' 


TABLE  21  —  Continued. 

Size 

Total  Safe  Loads  and  Safe  Vertical  Sheir  in  Pounds  Limited  by 

Surfaced 

Multi- 

P          M 

Rough 

S1S1E 

R.  R. 

Highway 

Pro- 

orS4S 

Factor 

120* 

150* 

tected 

100 

Struct- 

125 

Struct- 

175* 

200 

225 

Struct- 

In. 

In. 

ures 

12x12 

ll^xllH 

1.09 

17640 

21160 

22050 

26460 

30870 

35280 

39690 

<S<§£0 

10580 

11025 

13230 

75435 

77640 

79*45 

12x14 

Hi^xl3V£ 

1.08 

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24830 

25875 

31050 

36225 

41400 

46575 

70350 

12415 

12938 

15525 

18113 

20700 

23288 

12x16 

[i  i/xlS1/' 

1.08 

23770 

28520 

29713 

35055 

41598 

47540 

53483 

y 

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14260 

74557 

17828 

20799 

£3770 

26742 

12x18 

1  1  l/xl?1  9 

1.07 

26830 

32200 

33538 

40245 

46958 

53660 

60368 

73475 

16100 

16769 

20123 

23479 

26830 

30184 

12x20 

II1  9X19^9 

1.07 

29900 

35890 

37375 

44850 

52325 

59800 

67275 

74950 

17945 

18688 

22425 

26163 

29900 

33638 

14x14 

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29170 

30375 

36450 

42525 

48600 

54675 

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21263 

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48825 

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23625 

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35435 

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42110 

43875 

52650 

61425 

70200 

78975 

77550 

21055 

21938 

26325 

30773 

35700 

39488 

16x16 

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1.07 

32030 

38430 

40038 

48045 

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64060 

72068 

76075 

19215 

20019 

24023 

28027 

32030 

36034 

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l5V£xl7V2 

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43400 

45213 

54255 

63298 

72340 

81383 

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££607 

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70525 

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90675 

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35263 

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55525 

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88840 

99945 

£££70 

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£7763 

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58270 

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72870 

85015 

97160 

109305 

£4£90 

29135 

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42508 

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48990 

51025 

61230 

71435 

81640 

91845 

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25513 

30675 

35718 

40820 

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54600 

56875 

68250 

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91000 

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£7300 

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S4125 

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51188 

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112905 

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31363 

37635 

43908 

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104125 

119000 

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101400 

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38025 

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. 

PACIFIC     COAST    WOODS 


MAXIMUM  SPANS  AND  MAXIMUM  DEFLECTIONS 
FOR  MILL  AND  LAMINATED  FLOORS 

Tables  22  and  23  show  the  maximum  spans  for  both  mill  and 
laminated  floors  limited  by  safe  fiber  stresses  varying  from  1,200 
to  1,800  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  by  floor  loads  varying  from 
50  to  1,000  pounds  per  square  foot.  The  maximum  deflections  in 
inches  are  also  given  for  each  span  length  shown.  The  dimen- 
sions of  flooring  given  are  standard  as  manufactured  by  the 
West  Coast  Lumbermen's  Association.  The  weight  of  the  floor 
has  been  added  to  the  live  load  in  computing  the  spans  and  de- 
flections. A  value  of  1,643,000  pounds  per  square  inch  for  the 
modulus  of  elasticity  was  used  in  computing  deflections  in  mill 
and  laminated  floors. 


219 


THE    WEST    COAST     LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


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PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


MAXIMUM    BENDING    OR    RESISTING    MOMENTS 

OF  CROSS  SECTION  IN  FOOT  POUNDS  FOR 

RECTANGULAR  BEAMS 

Table  24  shows  the  maximum  resisting  moments  in  foot 
pounds  for  timbers  varying  in  size  from  2"x4"  to  20"x30"  for 
safe  fiber  stresses  varying  from  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  values  given  are  for  surfaced  sizes.  Multiplying  fac- 
tors are  given  which  enable  the  values  to  be  quickly  converted  to 
those  for  rough  timbers  full  size. 


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SAFK    LOADS    OX    COU'MNS 

In  computing  safe  loads  on  columns  two  standard  formulae 
have   been    used,    one    a    straight    line    formula    adopted    by    the 
American    Railway    Engineering    Association,    and    the    other    a 
curved  line  formula  established  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Division  of  Forestry*.   In  both  formulae  safe  fiber  stresses 
in  end  compression  have  been  used  varying  from  1,000  to  1,600 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

*  Now  r.  S.  Dept.  of  Agrlcult  ire,  Forest  Service. 

53 

30 

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5 
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3 

13 
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X>        MM         500        000         700        BOO        800         IOOO       I'OO        I20C        1  5OO        100       ISOO        I6OO 

WORK  NO  STRESS-  LBS.  ptR  so.  IN 
gram   14.     Graphic     presentation     of    column     formu  a     adopted     by     the 
American     Railway     E  igineering     Association     for     safe     fiber 
stresses   of   1,000    to    1,600   pounds  per   square   inch.      See'  table 
25   for   explanation   of  formula. 

229 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


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XJ        400         300        600        700        800        BOO        IOOO      1100        IZOO       I3OO       MOO       ISOO       IflOO 

WORKING  STRESS  -LB  5  PER  so  IN. 

gram  15.     Graphic  presentation  of  column  formula  established  by  U.  S. 
Dept.   of  Agriculture,    Forestry   Division    (now  U.    S.   Dept.    of 
Agriculture,   Forest   Service),   for  safe  fiber  stresses  of   1,000 
to   1,600   pounds   per   square  inch.      See   table   26   for  explana- 
tion of  formula. 

FORMULA   ADOPTED    BY   THE    AMERICAN    RAILWAY 
ENGINEERING  ASSOCIATION 

rking  unit  stress  =  C  (1  —  Z/60d)  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

=  Safe  fiber  stress  in  end  compression,  in  pounds  per  square 
inch. 
=  Length  of  column,  in  inches. 
=  Least  diameter  or  dimension  of  column,  in  inches. 

PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


FORMULA  ESTABLISHED  BY  THE  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICUL- 
TURE,  FORESTRY  DIVISION* 

(700+lSc) 
Working  Unit  Stress  =  C  — 

(700+15c+c2) 

C  =  Safe  fiber  stress  in  end  compression,  in  pounds  per  square 

inch. 

I  =  Length  of  column,  in  inches. 

d  =  Least  diameter  or  dimension  of  column,  in  inches, 
c  =  Z/d. 

Diagrams  14  and  15  have  been  prepared  and  may  be  used 
for  determining  the  working  unit  stresses  for  columns.  The 
working  unit  stresses  given  in  tables  25  and  26  have  been  taken 
directly  from  the  diagrams  and  show  in  tabular  form  the  cor- 
responding safe  fiber  stresses  for  values  of  l/d  varying  from 
15  to  32. 

In  the  preparation  of  tables  27  and  28,  the  diagrams  have 
been  used  only  for  computing  the  total  safe  loads  on  columns  in 
which  the  ratio  of  length  to  smallest  dimension  is  15  or  greater. 
In  figuring  the  safe  loads  on  columns  in  which  Z/d  is  less  than 
15  the  working  unit  stresses  in  end  compression  shown  at  the  top 
of  tables  have  been  used. 

The  tables  show  safe  bearing  loads  for  columns  6"x6"  to 
26"x26"  in  cross  section,  surfaced  S1S1E  or  S4S.  The  area  of  the 
actual  cross  section  is  shown  in  square  inches,  together  with  the 
length  of  the  column  and  the  ratio  Z/d.  Multiplying  factors  are 
also  shown  in  bold  face  in  these  tables,  and  may  be  used  in  con- 
verting the  various  values  shown,  to  similar  values,  for  full 
size  (rough)  columns.  The  figures  in  the  column  headed  "Mul- 
tiplying Factor"  apply  to  the  loads  shown  in  the  same  horizontal 
line.  For  example,  the  table  based  on  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  formula  shows  that  by  using  a  working  unit  stress  of 
1,600  pounds  per  square  inch  a  14"xl4"  column  18  feet  long,  sur- 
faced to  ISV^'xlS^",  will  support  a  load  of  228,910  pounds.  This 
same  column  in  the  rough  size  would  support  a  load  equal  to 
228,910x1.09  or  249,510  pounds. 

*  Now  the  U.  S.   Dept.  of  Agriculture.   Forest  Service. 
231 


THE     WEST     COAST     LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


WORKING    UNIT    STRESSES    IX    POUNDS    PER    SQUARE    INCH 

FOR  SQUARE  END  DOUGLAS   FIR   COLUMNS, 

SYMMETRICALLY  LOADED 

Based   on   the  formula  adopted  by   the  American   Railway   Engineer- 

ing Association. 

Working  Unit   Stress  =  C  (1—  //60d). 

C  =  Safe   fiber  stress   In   end   compression,    In   pounds   per   square   Inch. 

;  =  length  of  column,  in  inches/ 

(1  =  least   side  or   diameter,    in   inches. 

When  /  d  is  less  than  15.   use  "C." 

TABLE  25 

Working  Unit  Stresses  in  Pounds  per  Sq.  In.  for  Values  of  "C"  as  indicated 

I/A 

1000 

1100 

1200 

1300 

1400            1500            1600 

15  ... 

749 

824 

900 

974 

1049            1125            1200 

16  

732 

806 

879 

952 

1025            1100            1182 

17  

716 

787 

860 

930 

1002            1075            1145 

18  

700 

769 

840 

909 

979            1050            1119 

19  

683 

750 

819 

887 

955            1025            1092 

20  ... 

666 

732 

800 

866 

932            1000            1065 

21  

649 

714 

779 

843 

909              975            1039 

22  

632 

696 

760 

822 

885              950            1012 

23  ... 

616 

677 

739 

801 

862              925              985 

24  

600 

659 

720 

779 

839              900              959 

25.    .. 

582 

640 

699 

757 

815              875              932 

26  

566 

622 

680 

735 

792              850              906 

27.  . 

549 

604 

659 

714 

769              825              879 

28... 

533 

585 

639 

692 

746              800              852 

29  

516 

567 

620 

670 

722              775              825 

30  . 

500 

548 

599 

649 

699              750              799 

31  

483 

530 

580 

627 

675              725              772 

32  

466 

512 

559 

606 

651              700              745 

PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


WORKING    UNIT    STRESSES    IN    POUNDS    PER    SQUARE    INCH 

FOR   SQUARE   END  DOUGLAS   FIR  COLUMNS, 

SYMMETRICALLY  LOADED 

Based    on    formula    established    by    the    U.    S.    Dept. 

of    Agriculture 

Forestry  Division  * 

(700  +  15c) 

(700  +  15c  +  c2) 

.     C  =  Safe  fiber  stress   in   end  compression,   in   pounds  per  si 

uare  inch. 

I  =  length  of  column,   in  inches. 

d  =  least   side  or   diameter,    in   inches. 

When  I/A  is  less  than  15.   use  "C." 

TABLE  26 

Working  Unit  Stressej  in  Pounds  per  Sq.  In.  for  Values 

of  "C"  as 

ndicated 

I/A 

1000 

1100 

1200 

1300 

1400 

1500 

1600 

15.... 

804 

884 

965 

1046 

1127 

1206 

1284 

16  

785 

864 

943 

1022 

1100 

1179 

1255 

17  

767 

844 

921 

998 

1075 

1150 

1226 

18  

749 

823 

899 

974 

1050 

1124 

1199 

19  

730 

805 

878 

950 

1025 

1097 

1170 

20.... 

712 

786 

857 

928 

1000 

1071 

1143 

21  

695 

768 

837 

905 

975 

1046 

1117 

22  

679 

750 

817 

951 

1020 

1090 

23  

663 

731 

796 

861 

929 

996 

1063 

24  

647 

714 

778 

841 

906 

971 

1039 

.25.... 

631 

697 

759 

821 

884 

949 

1013 

26  

617 

681 

741 

802 

864 

927 

989 

27  

601 

664 

724 

784 

844 

965 

28  

587 

648 

707 

766 

824 

883 

942 

29  

573 

632 

690 

748 

805 

862 

920 

30.  .  .  . 

559 

617 

674 

730 

787 

841 

899 

31  

547 

601 

659 

713 

768 

821 

878 

32  

534 

587 

643 

696 

750 

801 

856 

Now  IT.  S.   L>ept.  of  Agriculture.    Forest  Service. 


233 


THE     WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


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82 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


3  §8  SS  33  I 

S~iS2§B  Ilii  II  gg  88  I'!  | 

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236 


THE     WJOST     COAST     I, I'M  BKKMK.VS     ASSOCIATION 


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PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


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237 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


JOIST  CONSTRUCTION 

Table  29  shows  the  lineal  feet  of  joists  per  square  foot  of 

floor  space  required  for  joists  spaced  12"  to  24" 

on  centers.    This 

table  also  gives  the  number  of  board  feet  of  joists  and  the  weight 

in  pounds  per  square  foot  of  floor  space  for  the 

various  spacings 

of  joists. 

JOIST   CONSTRUCTION 

Lineal  feet,  board  feet  and  weight  per  square  foot  of  floor  surface 
for  various  sizes  and  spacings  of  Douglas  fir  joists. 

TABLE  29 

SH 

Distance 
on 
Centers 

Per  Square  Foot  of  Floor  Surface 

Rough 

Surfaced 

S1S1E 
or 
848 

Number  of 

Weight 
(Air-dry  ma- 
terial at  34 
Ib8.per 
cu.  ft.) 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Lineal  Feet 

Board  Feet 

Lbs. 

2x  4 
2x  4 
2x4 

|| 

12 
16 
20 

3/4 
3/5 

1.00 
.75 
.60 

2/3 
1/2 
2/5 

.67 
.50 
.40 

1.391 
1.043 
.8346 

"  2x6 

2x  6 
2x  6 

11 

12 
16 
20 

1 

3/4 
3/5 

1.00 
.75 

.60 

1 

3/4 
3/5 

1.00 
.75 

.60 

2.159 
1.619 
1.295 

2x  8 
2x  8 
2x  8 
2x  8 

5/&7^ 
Jix  7}^ 

12 
16 
20 
24 

1 
3/4 

» 

1.00 
.75 
.60 

.50 

1-1/3 

4/5 
2/3 

1.33 

1.00 
.80 
.67 

2.879 
2.159 
1.727 
1.440 

2x10 
2x10 
2x10 
2x10 
2x10 

Y&.  91A 

12 
16 
18 
20 
24 

1 

tt 

8 

1.00 
.75 

.667 
.60 
.50 

1-2/3 
1-1/4 

,-v. 

5/6 

1.67 
1.25 
1.11 
1.00 
.83 

3.644 
2.733 
2.441 
2.186 
1.822 

2x12 
2x12 

5A*111A 
JfrllH 

12 
16 

3/4 

1.00 

.75 

2 
1-1/2 

2.00 
1.50 

4.412 
3.309 

2x14 
2x14 
2x14 

2ixl3^ 
V&MVi 
H*13>i 

12 
14 
16 

6/7 

3/4 

1.00 

.857 
.75 

r,/3 
1-3/4 

2.33 
2.00 
1.75 

5.180 
4.439 
3.885 

2x16 
2x16 
2x16 

y&teyi 

5A*i5y2 

12 
14 
16 

6/7 
3/4 

1.00 

.857 
.75 

2-2/3 
2-2/7 

2.67 
2.29 
2.00 

5.947 
5.097 
4.460 

3x12 
3x12 

2^x11^ 
2^x11^ 

12 
16 

1 

3/4 

1.00 
.75 

3 

2-1/4 

3.00 
2.25 

6.788 
5.091 

3x14 
3x14 
3x14 

2Hxl3^ 
2J^xl3H 
2^xl3J^ 

12 
14 
16 

1 

6/7 
3/4 

1.00 

.857 
.75 

ri/2 

2-5/8 

3.50 
3.00 
2.63 

7.967 
6.828 
5.975 

3x16 
3x16 
3x16 

2^x15^ 
2V£xl5H 
2Kxl5H 

12 
14 
16 

1 
6/7 
3/4 

1.00 
.857 
.75 

4 
3-3/7 

4.00 
3.43 
3.00 

9.144 
7.836 
6.858 

4x16 
4x16 
4x16 

3H*15J3 
3Jixl5^ 

3Uxl5'.; 

12 
14 
16 

1                   1.00 
6/7              .857 
3/4              .75 

5-1/3 

t* 

5.33 

4.57 
4.00 

12.80 
10.97 
9.600 

PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


BOARD    MEASURE    AND    WEIGHT    PER    LINEAL 
FOOT  FOR  VARIOUS  SIZES 

Table  30  shows  the  board  feet  per  lineal  foot  for  various 

sizes   based   on   dimensions   of   rough   timbers.  This   table   also 

shows  the  weight  per  lineal  foot  for  rough  and  surfaced  lumber, 
both  green  and  air-seasoned. 


BOARD     MEASURE     AND    WEIGHT     PER     LINEAL     FOOT     FOR 
DOUGLAS  FIR 

Green  weight  based  oti  :!2  per  cent  moisture — 38  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Air-seasoned  weight  based  on  18  per  cent  moisture — 34  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Oven-dry  weight — 29  pounds  per  cubic   foot. 

TABLE  30 


Size 

Weight  per  Lineal  Foot 

Per 

Lineal 

Rough 

Surfaced  S1S1E  or  S4S 

Surfaced 

Fcot 

Rough 

S1S1E 

orS4S 

Green 

Air  Seasoned 

Green 

Air  Seasoned 

In. 

In. 

Board  Feet 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

2x  4 

\Yt,\  3% 

H 

2.111 

1.890 

1.554 

1.391 

2x  6 

l/-gx  5% 

1 

3.168 

2.832 

2.411 

2.159 

2x  8 

IJfe  7M 

1M 

4.220 

3.777 

3.216 

2.879 

2x10 

1% 

5.280 

4.723 

4.073 

3.644 

2x12 

l^xll^j 

2 

6.335 

5.665 

4.931 

4.412 

2x14 

!5/£xl3V2 

7.390 

6.612 

5.788 

5.180 

2x16 

15-6x15.1/2 

2% 

8.440 

7.553 

6.648 

5.947 

2x18 

3 

•9.500 

8.500 

7.505 

6.718 

2x20 

15-8Xl9>2 

3^ 

10.510 

9.443 

8.360 

7.480 

3x  6 

2Hx  5^2 

1J-2 

4.750 

4.250 

3.630 

3.248 

3x  8 

2J/2X  71A 

2 

6.335 

5.665 

4.947 

4.427 

3x10 

7.918 

7.085 

6.270 

5.608 

3x12 

2V^xlll4 

3  2 

9.500 

8.500 

7.590 

6.788 

3x14 

2^xl3/-£ 

3/-^ 

11.080 

9.915 

8.909 

7.967 

3x16 

23-2xl51-^ 

4 

12.660 

11.320 

10.220 

9.144 

3x18 

2^xl7^i 

14.250 

12.750 

11.540 

10.330 

3x20 

2^x19^ 

5'2 

15.820 

14.160 

12.860 

11.510 

4x  4 

3Jix3H 

1H 

4.220 

3.777 

3.231 

2.890 

4x  6 

3J^x  5J/2 

2 

6.335 

5.665 

5.080 

4.545 

4x  8 

31A*  11A 

8.440 

7.553 

6.928 

6.200 

4x10 

3/^x  9^2 

31^ 

10.540 

9.450 

8.775 

7.850 

4x12 

31^x11^ 

4 

12.660 

11.320 

10.620 

9.507 

4x14 

3^x133^ 

4M 

14.790 

13.220 

12.460 

11.160 

4x16 

3?^xl5V^ 

16.890 

15.110 

14.310 

12.800 

4x18 

33^x17^ 

6 

19.000 

17.000 

16.160 

14.460 

4x20 

3K2X19J/2 

6% 

21.120 

18.900 

18.010 

16.110 

(Table  30  Concluded   on   Next   Page.) 


THE     WKST     COAST     LfMI'.KU.M  KX'S     ASSOCIATION 


TABLE  30—  Continued. 

Size 

Weight  per  Lineal  Foot 

Pa- 

Lineal 

Rough 

Surfaced  S1S1E  or  S4S 

Surfaced 

Fo:t 

Re  ugh 

S1S1E 

orS4S 

Green 

Air  Seasoned 

Green 

Air  Seasoned 

In. 

In. 

Board  Feet 

Lbe. 

Lbe. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

fix  6 

54X   54 

3 

9.50 

8.50 

7.98 

7  142 

6x  8 

54x  74 

4 

12  66 

11  32 

10.88 

9.74 

6x10 
6x12 

54*  94 
54*114 

5 
6 

15.82 
19  00 

14.16 
17.00 

13  79 
16  69 

12  34 
14.93 

6x14 
6x16 
6x18 
6x20 

54x134 
54x154 
54*174 
54*194 

7 
8 
9 
10 

22.16 
25.34 
28.50 
31.67 

19.82 
22.67 
25.50 
28.32 

19.60 
22  50 
25  40 
28.30 

17.54 
20  12 
22.72 
25  32 

8x  8 
8x10 

74*  74 
74*  94 

gf 

16.89 
21  12 

15  11 
18  90 

14.85 

18.80 

13.28 
16  82 

8x12 

74x114 

8 

25.34 

22  67 

22.75 

20  36 

8x14 

74*134 

»4 

29  56 

26  44 

26.72 

23.91 

8x16 

74x154 

10% 

33  79 

30  22 

30.68 

27  44 

8x18 

74*174 

12 

38.00 

34  00 

34  63 

31  00 

8x20 

74*194 

134 

42  20 

37.77 

38.58 

34  50 

10x10 

94*  94 

84' 

26.40 

23.60 

23.81 

21.31 

10x12 

94x114 

10 

31.67 

28  32 

28.83 

25.80 

10x14 

94x134 

11^ 

36.99 

33.02 

33.85 

30,29 

10x16 

94x154 

134 

42.20 

•37.77 

38.88 

34  79 

10x18 

94x174 

15 

47.50 

42.50 

43.89 

39.27 

10x20 

94*194 

MK 

52  80 

47  22 

48.90 

43.75 

12x12 

114x114 

12 

38.00 

34  00 

34.90 

31  21 

12x14 
12x16 

114x134 

114x154 

14 
16 

44.33 
50.67 

39  66 
45.33 

40.97 
47.03 

36  65 
42  10 

12x18 

114*174 

18 

57.00 

51  00 

53.10 

47.50 

12x20 

114x194 

20 

63  33 

56.63 

59.19 

52  95 

14x14 

14x16 
14x18 

134x134 
134*154 
134*174 

P 

51  76 
59.13 
66.50 

46  30 
52.90 
59.50 

48.10 
55  20 
62.33 

43  03 

49  40 
55  78 

14x20 

134x194 

234 

73.87 

66.10 

69.45 

62  17 

16x16 
16x18 

154*154 
154*174 

214 
24 

67.57 
76.00 

60.46 
68.00 

63  40 

71  58 

56.71 
64.02 

16x20 

15!/2xl9^ 

264 

84.40     ' 

To  :.n 

79.80 

71  40 

16x22 

15^x21^ 

294 

92  90 

83.18 

87.90 

78.67 

16x24 

15Hx23Ji 

32 

101  30 

90.60 

96  10 

86.00 

18x18     1       174x174 

27 

85.50 

76.50 

80.80 

72.30 

18x20     1       17!  2xl9'.  2 

30 

95.00 

85.00 

90.05 

8060 

18x22 

17^x21J/2 

33 

104.50 

93.50 

99.26 

88.82 

18x24 

17^x23^2 

36 

114.00 

102  00 

108  55 

97  10 

20x20 

19^x195-2 

334 

105.50 

94.40 

100.37 

89.75 

20x22 

WAxZIM 

116  10 

103  90 

110.60 

99.00 

20x24 

19Hx23'i 

40 

126  70 

113  40 

120.92 

108.20 

22x22 
•22x24 

21iix2m 
214x23.4 

8" 

127.80 
139  40 

114  20 
124.70 

122.00 
133.40 

109.15 
119  30 

24x24 

234x234 

48 

152.00 

136  00 

145.75 

130.45 

26x26 

25,4x25)2 

564        \     178.40 

159  60 

171.50 

153.50 

240 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


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THE    WEST    COAST     LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


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THE    WKST    COAST    LUMBKRMEN  S     ASSOCIATION' 


MILL   BUILDINGS 

In  recent  years  marked  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  construction  of  mill  buildings.  These  improvements  have 
been  of  such  a  nature  as  to  reduce  maintenance  cost,  fire  risk, 
and  insurance  rates,  and  to  insure  a  longer  life  for  the  struc- 
ture. This  discussion  will  be  confined  largely  to  that  type  of 
building  known  as  the  timber-brick  mill  building. 

There  are  a  number  of  significant  details  which  should  be 
considered  in  the  design  of  every  modern  mill  building.  The 
addition  of  these  details  is  inexpensive,  and  the  accruing  bene- 
fits far  outweigh  the  added  cost.  Some  of  the  most  significant 
features  which  should  receive  consideration  in  the  design  of  the 
highest  class  of  mill  building,  are  as  follows: 

1.  All  exterior  windows  should  be  fitted  with  wired  glass  in 
metal  frames; 

2.  As  many  subdivisions  in  the  building  as  are  practicable 
should  be  provided,  both  horizontally  and  vertically. 

3.  Protect  timber  details  where  necessary  with  a  brush  ap- 
plication of  coal-tar  creosote,  or  other  suitable  preservative; 

4.  Install  an  automatic  sprinkler  system  as  a  fire  protection; 

5.  Use  only  large  timber  joists,  girders  and  posts; 

6.  Use  wide  spacing  of  joists,  and  thick  tongued  and  grooved 
or  laminated  floors; 

7.  Laminated  floor  timbers  should  be  thoroughly  kiln  dried 
before  being  placed  in  the  building  to  prevent  dry  rot; 

8.  Provide  stairway  and  elevator  enclosures. 

The  cost,  durability,  and  insurance  rates  on  a  building  and  j 
contents  are  factors  which  concern  the  builder  who  must  finance 
the  building.  He  will  naturally  endeavor  to  get  a  building  low 
in  first  cost,  and  also  low  in  insurance  and  maintenance  cost*. 
In.  other  words,  he  will  or  should  strive  to  get  the  greatest  pos- 
sible returns  for  each  dollar  spent.  The  following  discussion 
bears  on  the  above  factors,  and  presents  information  which  is  of 
vital  interest  to  the  builder. 

DURABILITY 

The  durability  of  a  mill  building  may  be  greatly  increased 
by  a  few  simple  operations.  The  decay  of  wood,  which  is  hastened 
by  the  presence  of  damp  air  and  poor  ventilation,  starts  most 
readily  on  the  end  grain  of  timbers  such  as  girders  and  columns. 


I'MO     COAST    WOODS 


245 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


246 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


247 


THE    WEST    COAST     LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

These  data  have  been  taken  from  an  article  by  Charles  T. 
Main,  M.  Am.  Soc.  M.  E.,  published  in  Engineering  News,  Janu- 
ary 27,  1910.  The  diagrams  are  based  upon  the  following  unit 
values  given  by  Mr.  Main  for  the  various  materials  used: 

"The  cost  of  brick  walls  is  based  on  22  bricks  per  cubic  foot, 
costing  $18  per  thousand,  laid.  Openings  are  estimated  at  40 
cents  per  sq.  ft.,  including  windows,  doors  and  sills. 

"Ordinary  mill  floors,  including  timbers,  planking  and  top 
floor  with  Southern  pine  timber  at  $40  per  M  ft.  B.  M.  and  spruce 
planking  at  $30  per  M.,  costs  about  32  cents  per  sq.  ft,  which  has 
been  used  as  a  unit  price.  Ordinary  mill  roofs  covered  with  tar 
and  gravel,  with  lumber  at  the  above  prices,  cost  about  25  cents 
per  sq.  ft.  and  this  has  been  used  in  the  estimates.  Add  for  stair- 
ways, elevator  wells,  plumbing,  partitions  and  special  work." 

The  diagrams  are  to  be  used  when  all  conditions  are  normal. 
There  are  many  different  conditions  encountered  in  practice 
which  influence  the  cost  of  buildings.  The  following  special 
cases  are  mentioned  in  Mr.  Main's  discussion,  which  cover  vari- 
ous conditions  and  classes  of  buildings. 

"(a)  If  the  soil  is  poor  or  the  conditions  of  the  site  are 
such,  as  to  require  more  than  the  ordinary  amount  of  founda- 
tions, the  cost  will  be  increased. 

"(b)  If  the  end  or  a  side  of  the 'building  is  formed  by  an- 
other building,  the  cost  of  one  or  the  other  will  be  reduced 
slightly. 

"(c)  If  the  building  is  to  be  used  for  ordinary  storage  pur- 
poses with  low  stories  and  no  top  floors,  the  cost  will  be  de- 
creased from  about  10%  for  large  low  buildings,  to  25%  for  small 
high  ones,  about  20%  usually  being  a  fair  allowance. 

"(d)  If  the  buildings  are  to  be  used  for  manufacturing 
purposes  and  are  to  be  substantially  built  of  wood,  the  cost  will 
be  decreased  from  about  6%  for  large  one-story  buildings,  to  35% 
for  small  high  buildings;  15%  would  usually  be  a  fair  allowance. 

"(e)  if  the  buildings  are  to  be  used  for  storage  with  low 
stories  and  built  substantially  of  wood,  the  cost  will  be  de- 
creased from  13%  for  large  one-story  buildings,  to  50%  for  small 
high  buildings;  30%  would  usually  be  a  fair  allowance. 

"(f)  If  the  total  floor  loads  are  more  than  75  Ibs.  per  sq. 
ft.  the  cost  is  increased. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


"(g)  For  office  buildings,  the  cost  must  be  increased  to 
cover  architectural  features  on  the  outside  and  interior  finish." 

Mr.  Main  makes  the  following  significant  deductions  from 
the  diagrams: 

"(1)  An  examination  of  the  diagrams  shows  immediately 
the  decrease  in  cost  as  the  width  is  increased.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  cost  of  the  walls  and  outside  foundations,  which 
is  an  important  item  of  cost,  relative  to  the  total  cost,  is  de- 
creased as  the  width  increases. 

"For  example,  supposing  a  three-story  building  is  desired 
with  30,000  sq.  ft.  on  each  floor: 

"If  the  building  were  600  ft.  x  50  ft.,  its  cost  would  be  about 
99  cents  per  sq.  ft. 

"If  the  building  were  400  ft.  by  75  ft,  its  cost  would  be 
about  87  cents  per  sq.  ft. 

"If  the  building  were  300  ft  x  100  ft,  its  cost  would  be  about 
83  cents  per  sq.  ft. 

"If  the  building  were  240  ft.  x  125  ft,  its  cost  would  be  about 
80  cents  per  sq.  ft. 

"(2)  The  diagrams  show  that  the  minimum  cost  per  square 
foot  is  reached  with  a  four-story  building.  A  three-story  build- 
ing costs  a  trifle  more  than  a  four-story.  A  one  story  building  is 
the  most  expensive.  This  is  due  to  the  combination  of  several 
features:  (a)  The  cost  of  ordinary  foundations  does  not  increase 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  stories,  and  therefore  their  cost 
is  less  per  square  foot  as  the  number  of  stories  is  increased,  at 
least  up  to  the  limit  of  the  diagram,  (b)  The  roof  is  the  same 
for  a  one-story  building  as  for  one  of  any  other  number  of  stories, 
and  therefore  its  cost  relative  to  the  total  cost  grows  less  as  the 
number  of  stories  increases,  (c)  The  cost  of  columns,  including 
the  supporting  piers  and  castings,  does  not  vary  much  per  story 
as  the  stories  are  added,  (d)  As  the  number  of  stories  increases, 
the  cost  of  the  walls,  owing  to  increased  thickness,  increases  in 
a  greater  ratio  than  the  number  of  stories,  and  this  item  is  the 
one  which  in  the  four  story-building  offsets  the  saving  in  foun- 
dations and  roof. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


Tables  32   and 

33  show   the  unit  values  used  in  computing 

the  diagrams: 

DATA   FOR  ESTIMATING   COST   OF   BUILDINGS 

TABLE  32 

Foundations 

Brick  Walls 

Columns 

Height 

Including  Excavations 
Cost  per  Lin.  Ft. 

Cost  per  Sq.  Ft.  of 
Surface 

including 
Piers  and 
Casting) 

For  Outside 

For  Inside 

Outside 

Inside 

Cost  of 

Walls 

Walls 

Walls 

Walls 

One 

One-Story  Building  ... 
Two-Story  Building  

$2.00 
2.90 

$1.75 
2.25 

$0.40 
.44 

$040 
.40 

$15.00 
15.00 

Three-Story  Building  

3.80 

2.80 

.47 

.40 

15  00 

Four-Story  Building  
Five-Story  Building  

4.70 
5.60 

3.40 
3.90 

.50 
.53 

.43 
.45 

15.00 
15.00    • 

Six-Story  Building  

6.50 

4.50 

.57 

.47 

15.00 

DATA    FOR   APPROXIMATING   COST   OF    MILL    BUILDINGS    OK 

.     .                 KNOWN  SIZE  BUT  WITHOUT  DEFINITE 

PLANS    MADE 

TABLE  33 

Height  of  Building 

Foundations 
Including  Excavation 
Cost  per  Lin.  Ft. 

Brick  Walls 
Including  Doors  and 
Windows.    Cost  per 
Sq.  Ft.  of  Surface 

For  Outside 

For  Inside 

Outside 

Inside 

Walls 

Walls 

Walls 

Walls 

One  Story. 

$2.00 

$1.75 

$0.40 

$0.40 

Two  Stories  

2.90 

2.25 

.44 

.40      . 

Three  Stories  

3  80 

2  80 

.47 

.40 

Four  Stories  

4.70 

3.40 

.50 

.43 

Five  Stories  

5.60 

3.90 

.53 

.45 

Six  Stories  

6.50 

4  50 

.57 

.47 

Mr.  Main  gives  the  following  general  information  which  is 

useful  in  making  estimates: 

"From   grounc 

to   first   floor,   3    ft..     Buildings   25    ft.    wide, 

stories  13   ft.   high.     Buildings   50  ft.   wide,  stories   14   ft.   high. 

Buildings  75  ft.  wide,  stories  15  ft.  high.     Buildings  100  ft.  wide, 

stories  16  ft.  high. 

Buildings  125  ft.  wide,  stories  16  ft.  high. 

"Floors,  32  cents  per  sq.  ft.  of  gross  floor  space  not  including 

columns.     If  columns  are  included,  38  cents. 

PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


"Roof,  25  cents  per  sq.  ft.,  not  including  columns.  If  columns 
are  included,  30  cents.  Roof  to  project  18  inches  all  around 
buildings. 

"Stairways,  including  partitions,  $100  each  flight.  Allow 
two  stairways,  and  one  elevator  tower  for  buildings  up  to  150 
ft.  long.  Allow  two  stairways  and  two  elevator  towers  for  build- 
ings up  to  300  ft.  long.  In  buildings  over  two  stories,  allow 
three  stairways  and  three  elevator  towers  for  buildings  over  300 
ft.  long. 

"In  buildings  over  two  stories,  plumbing  $75  for  each  fixture, 
including  piping  and  partitions.  Allow  two  fixtures  on  each  floor 
up  to  5,000  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  and  add  one  fixture  for  each  addi- 
tional 5.000  sq.  ft.  of  floor  or  fraction  thereof." 

INSURANCE  RATES 

Mill  buildings  of  modern  design  are  subject  to  low  insurance 
rates.  This  fact  is  oftentimes  lost  sight  of,  due  to  confusing  the 
good  types  of  mill  construction  with  poor  ones.  Of  course,  the  in- 
surance rate  on  poorly  designed  mill  buildings  is  considerably 
higher  than  that  on  the  fire-resisting  type  of  construction.  The 
following  quotation  is  taken  from  an  address  by  Chester  J. 
Hogue,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  given  at  a  Lumbermen's  Dinner  in 
Portland,  Oregon,  October  15,  1915: 

"Now  the  best  comparison  of  safe  types  of  fire-resisting  con- 
struction can  perhaps  be  shown  by  comparative  insurance  rates — 
by  the  judgment  of  men  whose  business  it  is  to  study  this  ques- 
tion. We  have  in  Portland  secured  comparative  insurance  rates 
on  a  specific  case,  assuming  a  furniture  store  occupancy,  and  the 
rate  on  the  wood  construction  building  was  47  cents  and  on  the 
fire  proof  building  35  cents,  and  with  sprinklers,  the  comparison 
was  28  cents  on  the  mill  construction  as  against  21  cents  on  the 
fire  proof,  these  rates  being  on  the  building,  not  the  contents. 
The  rate  for  the  mill  construction  building,  sprinklered,  28  cents, 
was  less  than  the  35  cents  on  the  unprinklered  fire  proof  building. 

"I  also  had  rates  from  the  Chicago  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, assuming  a  machine  shop  occupancy.  The  rate  on  a 
building  not  sprinklered,  of  mill  construction,  was  $1.11  as  against 
24  cents  for  fire,  proof  construction;  and  sprinklered,  15  cents  for 
mill  construction  as  against  14  cents  for  fire  proof  material.  The 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBKKMKXS     ASSOCIATION 


Tables  32  and 

33  show   the  unit  values  used  in  computing 

the  diagrams: 

DATA  FOR  ESTIMATING  COST  OF  BUILDINGS 

TABLE  32 

Height 

Foundations 
Including  Excavations 
Cost  per  Lin.  Ft. 

Brick  Walls 
Cost  per  Sq.  Ft  of 
Surface 

Columns 

HSS 

Castings 

For  Outside 
Walls 

For  Inside 
Walb 

Outside 
Walk 

Inside 
Walls 

Cost  of 
One 

One-Story  Building.... 
Two-Story  Building  
Three-Story  Building  
Four-Storv  Building  
Five-Story  Building  
Six-Story  Building  

$2  00 
2.90 
3  80 
4.70 
5.60 
6.50 

$1  75 
2  25 
2.80 
3  40 
3.90 
4.50 

$0.40 
,44 
.47 
.50 
.53 
.57 

$0  40 
.40 
.40 
43 
.45 
.47 

$15.00 
15.00 
15.00 
15.00 
15.00    • 
15.00 

DATA    FOR   APPROXIMATING   COST 

OF    MILL    BUILDINGS    OF 

.     .                 KNOWN  SIZE  BUT  WITHOUT  DEFINITE 

TABLE  33 

PLANS   MADE 

Height  of  Building 

Foundations 
Including  Excavation 
Cost  per  Lin.  Ft. 

Brick  Walls 
Including  Doors  and 
Windows.    Cost  per 
Sq.  Ft.  of  Surface 

For  Outside 
Walls 

For  Inside 
Walls 

Outside 
Walb 

Inside 
Walk 

One  Story 
Two  Stories.  .  . 
Three  Stories  
Four  Stories 

$2  00 
2.90 
3.80 
4.70 
5.60 
6.50 

$1  75 
2.25 
2  80 
3.40 
3.90 
4  50 

$0.40 
.44 
.47 
.50 
.53 
.57 

!«B 
.43 
.45 

.47 

Five  Stories  
Six  Stories  

Mr.  Main  gives  the  following  general   information   which  is 

useful  in  making  estimates: 

"From  ground 

to  first   floor,   3 

ft..     Buildings   25   ft.   wide, 

stories  13   ft.  high.     Buildings   50  ft.   wide,  stories  14   ft.   high. 

Buildings  75  ft.  wide,  stories  15  ft.  high.    Buildings  100  ft.  wide, 

stories  16  ft.  high. 

Buildings  125  ft. 

wide,  stories  16  ft.  high. 

"Floors,  32  cents  per  sq.  ft.  of  gr 

:>ss  floor  space  not  including 

columns.     If  columns  are  included,  3 

8  cents. 

252 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


"Roof,  25  cents  per  sq.  ft.,  not  including  columns.  If  columns 
are  included,  30  cents.  Roof  to  project  18  inches  all  around 
buildings. 

"Stairways,  including  partitions,  $100  each  flight.  Allow 
two  stairways,  and  one  elevator  tower  for  buildings  up  to  150 
ft.  long.  Allow  two  stairways  and  two  elevator  towers  for  build- 
ings up  to  300  ft.  long.  In  buildings  over  two  stories,  allow 
three  stairways  and  three  elevator  towers  for  buildings  over  300 
ft.  long. 

"In  buildings  over  two  stories,  plumbing  $75  for  each  fixture, 
including  piping  and  partitions.  Allow  two  fixtures  on  each  floor 
up  to  5,000  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space  and  add  one  fixture  for  each  addi- 
tional 5.000  sq.  ft.  of  floor  or  fraction  thereof." 

INSURANCE  RATES 

Mill  buildings  of  modern  design  are  subject  to  low  insurance 
rates.  This  fact  is  oftentimes  lost  sight  of,  due  to  confusing  the 
good  types  of  mill  construction  with  poor  ones.  Of  course,  the  in- 
surance rate  on  poorly  designed  mill  buildings  is  considerably 
higher  than  that  on  the  fire-resisting  type  of  construction.  The 
following  quotation  is  taken  from  an  address  by  Chester  J. 
Hogue,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  given  at  a  Lumbermen's  Dinner  in 
Portland,  Oregon,  October  15,  1915: 

"Now  the  best  comparison  of  safe  types  of  fire-resisting  con- 
struction can  perhaps  be  shown  by  comparative  insurance  rates — 
by  the  judgment  of  men  whose  business  it  is  to  study  this  ques- 
tion. We  have  in  Portland  secured  comparative  insurance  rates 
on  a  specific  case,  assuming  a  furniture  store  occupancy,  and  the 
rate  on  the  wood  construction  building  was  47  cents  and  on  the 
fire  proof  building  35  cents,  and  with  sprinklers,  the  comparison 
was  28  cents  on  the  mill  construction  as  against  21  cents  on  the 
fire  proof,  these  rates  being  on  the  building,  not  the  contents. 
The  rate  for  the  mill  construction  building,  sprinklered,  28  cents, 
was  less  than  the  35  cents  on  the  unprinklered  fire  proof  building. 

"I  also  had  rates  from  the  Chicago  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers, assuming  a  machine  shop  occupancy.  The  rate  on  a 
building  not  sprinklered,  of  mill  construction,  was  $1.11  as  against 
24  cents  for  fire,  proof  construction;  and  sprinklered,  15  cents  for 
mill  construction  as  against  14  cents  for  fire  proof  material.  The 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

comparison  there  between  the  sprinklered  mill  construction  build- 
ing, shows  15  cents  as  against  24  cents  for  the  non-sprinklered 
fire  proof  building,  and  where  both  are  sprinklered,  only  1  cent 
difference.  On  the. contents,  the  rate  on  non-sprinklered  mill  con- 
struction was  $1.36  as  against  64  cents  for  the  fire  proof  construc- 
tion; the  rates  on  the  contents  sprinklered  were  30  cents  for  the 
mill  construction  as  against  26  cents  for  the  fire  proof  building. 
The  comparison  there  between  the  sprinklered  mill  construction 
was  30  cents  as  against  64  cents  for  non-sprinklered  fire  proof 
construction. 

"This  shows  clearly  that  a  sprinklered  mill  construction 
building  is  a  safer  risk  from  a  fire  insurance  standpoint  than  one 
of  non-sprinklered  fire  proof  construction.  The  sprinklered  mill 
construction  building  is  safer  both  as  to  building  and  contents 
than  a  fire  proof  building  non-sprinklered.  In  the  same  way,  a 
mill  construction  building  with  properly  constructed  stairways, 
and  elevator  shafts,  is  safer  as  to  .contents  than  a  non-sprinklered 
fire  proof  structure  with  unprotected  stairways  and  elevator 
shafts. 

"I  believe,  from  my  experience  in  both  kinds  of  construction, 
that  the  mill  construction  building,  with  masonry  walls,  wire 
glass  windows  and  sprinklered,  would  have  almost  as  great  an 
effect  in  stopping  a  conflagration  as  if  the  interior  was  of  so- 
called  fire  proof  construction — that  is,  of  incombustible  mate- 
rials." 

The  modern  timber-brick  mill  building  is  approximately  25% 
lower  in  first  cost  than  a  fire-resisting  building,  and  is  given  al- 
most the  same  advantage  in  insurance  rates.  Throughout  the 
Pacific  Coast  territory  where  timber  is  inexpensive  and  plentiful, 
the  difference  in  cost  between  these  types  of  buildings  will  prob- 
ably average  above  25%. 

Wood  construction  is  safe  when  the  proper  design  has  been 
used.  Its  low  first  cost  and  maintenance,  and  its  low  insurance 
rates  are  strong  arguments  in  its  favor  which  should  be  carefully 
weighed  by  architects  and  engineers  when  contemplating  the  de- 
sign of  new  buildings. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


PILING 

Douglas  fir  has  long  been  considered  an  ideal  piling  material. 
It  possesses  high  strength  values  and  may  be  obtained  in  lengths 
varying  from  10  feet  to  120  feet.  Due  to  the  fact  that  this  species 
grows  in  thick  stands,  it  is  possible  to  secure  straight  sticks  al- 
most entirely  free  from  knots  and  other  defects.  In  order  to 
obtain  reliable  figures  on  the-  dimensions  of  Douglas  fir  piling, 
a  large  number  of  measurements  have  been  taken  on  piles  from 
two  of  the  principal  producing  districts  of  Oregon  and  Washing- 
tori.  Approximately  50  piles  of  each  length  were  taken,  the 
lengths  varying  from  50  to  111  feet.  Piling  from  the  Columbia 
River  district  in  Oregon,  and  the  Puget  Sound  district  in  Wash- 
ington were  used  in  obtaining  these  data.  Diagrams  19  and  20 
show  the  size  and  natural  taper  of  the  timber.  For  example,  if 
it  is  desired  to  buy  piling  80  feet  long  and  of  any  given  butt 
diameter,  the  probable  corresponding  top  diameter  is  shown  on 
these  diagrams.  Of  course,  there  is  considerable  variation  in  the 
individual  sticks.  These  diagrams,  however,  show  what  actually 
grows  and  should  be  useful  in  placing  practicable  dimensions  on 
Douglas  fir  piling  when  writing  specifications. 

The  following  specification  for  Douglas  fir  piling  is  sug- 
gested as  a  guide  for  those  writing  specifications  for  this  material. 

SPECIFICATION    FOR    DOUGLAS    FIR    PILING 

The  following  specification  covers  two  general  classes  of 
piling. 

FOB  CBEOSOTING.  Piling  shall  be  cut  from  sound,  live  Doug- 
las fir  trees,  free  from  felling  or  wind  shakes,  loose  or  unsound 
knots,  large  knots  or  small  knots  in  great  numbers,  or  other  de- 
fects which  in  any  way  impair  the  strength  or  durability  for  the 
purpose  intended.  Each  pile  should  have  at  least  one-half  inch  of 
sapwood. 

Piling  shall  be  butt  cut  and  free  from  swelling.  Diameter 
three  feet  from  butt  shall  not  be  smaller  than  the  butt  diameter 
by  an  amount  greater  than  one  inch.  They  shall  be  free  from 
short  or  reverse  bends.  Piling  shall  be  so  straight  that  a  line 
drawn  from  the  center  of  the  two  ends  shall  at  no  point  fall  out- 
side the  pile.  Some  variations  in  this  respect  will  be  allowed  in 
sticks  80  feet  or  more  in  length. 


THE     WEST     COAST     LUMIJKKMKN'S     ASSOCIATION 


. 

'  -l! 

hi 

ill 


256 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


257 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

Piling  shall  be  free  from  damage  by  sea  worms  or  other  in- 
sects and  shall  be  carefully  peeled  free  from  bark,  and  all  knots 
shall  be  smoothly  dressed. 

FOR  TEMPORARY  USE.  Piling  shall  be  of  Douglas  fir  or  other 
species  which  will  stand  driving,  free  from  loose  or  unsound 
knots,  felling  shakes,  heart  or  wind  shakes,  sea  worm  holes,  or 
other  defects  which  impair  its  use  for  the  purpose  intended.  Knots 
shall  be  trimmed  close  and  no  short  or  reverse  bends  allowed.  No 
crooks  shall  be  permitted  exceeding  one-half  the  diameter  of  pile 
at  the  middle  of  the  bend. 


CREOSOTED   PILE  DOCKS 

During  the  past  few  years  creosoted  Douglas  fir  piling 
has  been  extensively  used  throughout  this  country  for  marine 
work.  Properly  creosoted  Douglas  fir  piling  withstands  the  attack 
of  the  marine  borer  for  many  years,  and  has  come  into  very  gen- 
eral use.  Experience  on  the  Pacific  Coast  has  shown  that  a  cre- 
osoted pile  dock  will  last,  on  a  very  conservative  estimate,  for  18 
to  20  years.  In  the  same  teredo-infested  waters  the  life  of  an  un- 
treated pile  dock  would  not  exceed  three  to  six  years. 

Creosoted  Douglas  fir  piling  has  been  found  to  be  the  most 
economical  material  for  dock  construction  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Large  docks  supporting  superstructures  when  built  on  creosoted 
piling  will  cost  approximately  $1.25  per  square  foot,  while  simi- 
lar structures  built  on  reinforced  concrete  will  cost  on  the  aver- 
age approximately  $3.00  per  square  foot. 

On  the  assumption  that  a  creosoted  pile  dock  costs  $1.25  per 
square  foot  and  requires  .30  per  cent  of  the  original  cost  to  keep 
it  in  repair  through  a  period  of  25  years  and  that  a  reinforced 
concrete  pile  dock  costs  $3.00  per  square  foot  and  lasts  through  a 
period  of  50  years,  the  concrete  dock  will  cost  approximately  35 
per  cent  more  at  the  end  of  a  50-year  period  than  the  creosoted 
pile  dock. 

At  the  present  time  the  commercial  life  of  a  dock  of  any  type 
of  construction  will  not  exceed  30  years,  due  to  the  fact  that 
methods  of  handling  freight  and  shipping  facilities  are  constantly 
changing.  A  dock  which  amply  fulfills  requirements  today  may 
be  entirely  inadequate  30  years  from  now'.  Due  to  this  fact  a 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


creosoted  pile  dock  has  the  advantage  of  being  entirely  remodeled 
at  the  end  of  25  to  30  years  to  meet  the  changed  conditions  of 
shipping.  This  is  a  practical  point  greatly  in  favor  of  a  creosoted 
pile  dock  as  against  one  of  reinforced  concrete,  since  the  latter 
type  would  have  to  last  much  longer  than  30  years  to  warrant 
the  high  initial  cost  of  $3.00  per  square  foot. 

Due  to  the  greater  economy  found  in  creosoted  pile  dock  con- 
struction, the  State  Harbor  Commission  adopted  this  type  of 
construction  every  place  where  it  was  practicable  to  drive  wooden 
piling,  in  developing  an  elaborate  system  of  docks  in  San  Fran- 
cisco Harbor.  The  "Port  of  Seattle  Commission"  also  adopted  cre- 
osoted pile  dock  construction  in  its  extensive  water  front  develop- 
ment projects  for  Seattle.  Figures  9  to  11  show  two  of  Seattle's 
dock  projects  during  course  of  construction  and  one  after  com- 
pletion. 


259 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBKUMKN'S     ASSOCIATION 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


WOOD    STAVE    PIPES    AND    FLUMES 

There  is  a  large  field  for  the  use  of  creosote  in  connection 
with  pipe  and  flume  staves,  used  in  irrigation  and  power  develop- 
ment projects.  Wood  stave  pipe  has  taken  a  prominent  place  in 
the  development  of  irrigation  districts  in  the  West.  Wood  stave 
pipe  and  flumes  are  low  in  first  cost  and  the  co-efficient  of  fric- 
tion is  very  small.  Due  to  this  latter  fact  a  larger  amount  of 
water  can  usually  be  delivered  through  a  wood  pipe  of  a  given 
size,  all  other  conditions  being  the  same,  than  through  pipes  of 
any  other  material.  Wood  pipe  in  general  has  the  following  ad- 
vantages to  recommend  it: 

1.  It  will  stand  high  pressure. 

2.  It  is  light  and  may  be  readily  and  cheaply  transported. 

3.  It  has  a  very  low  co-efficient  of  friction. 

4.  It  is  simple  and  easy  to  install. 

5.  Connections  may  be  quickly  made  at  any  point. 

6.  Wood  pipe  will  not  freeze  and  burst  in  winter. 

7.  It  is  not  injured  by  slight  settlements  which  may  occur. 

CAUSES  OF  DECAY  IN  WOOD  PIPE 

If  the  fibers  of  the  wood  are  thoroughly  saturated  with  water, 
decay  is  impossible.  Neither  can  the  fungus  thrive  if  the  wood 
is  thoroughly  dry.  There  is,  however,  an  intermediate  condition 
of  moisture,  which  assists  the  growth  of  wood-destroying  fungi. 

Most  irrigation  systems  are  in  operation  but  a  part  of  each 
year  and  are  therefore  empty  a  considerable  portion  of  the  time. 
This  condition  will  result  in  a  short  life  for  untreated  wood  pipe 
as  this  lack  of  fiber  saturation  is  the  cause  of  almost  all  decay 
in  wood  pipe.  Where  the  pipe  is  under  sufficient  hydrostatic 
pressure  to  assure  thorough  saturation  of  the  fiber,  and  where 
the  pipe  line  is  exposed  to  the  air,  untreated  pipe  will  give  good 
service.  But,  where  the  pressure  of  the  water  is  less  than  a  20- 
foot  head,  or  where  the  pipe  line  is  only  filled  a  portion  of  the 
time,  or  again,  where  the  pipe  is  buried  in  porous,  sandy,  grav- 
elly or  loam  soils,  untreated  pipe  is  subject  to  decay. 

The  following  conditions  are  discussed  as  most  favorable  for 
decay  in  the  various  styles  of  wood  stave  pipe: 

CONTINUOUS  STAVE.  Continuous  stave  pipe  which  is  exposed 
is  most  subject  to  decay  at  the  joints.  The  following  quotation 


263 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

is  taken  from  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  155 
(Professional  Paper). 

"Decay  of  exposed  pipes  almost  invariably  starts  at  the  ends 
of  staves,  as  a  result  of  leaky  joints.  Where  water  leaks  out  and 
runs  down  over  the  outside  of  the  pipe  favorable  conditions  are 
afforded  for  the  growth  of  algae,  which  usually  get  a  start,  then 
mosses  may  begin,  to  grow  in  the  soil  that  collects  on  such  spots, 
and  decay  spreads  to  adjoining  staves." 

Wood  is  more  liable  to  attack  by  fungus  on  the  end  grain 
than  on  any  other  surface,  which  accounts  for  the  development 
of  decay  at  the  end  joints. 

WIRE- WOUND  BANDED  COUPLINGS.  The  greatest  point  of  weak- 
ness in  this  type  of  pipe  is  the  banded  joints.  It  is  impossible  to 
keep  the  bands  saturated  and  hence  decay  sets  in  quickly,  and 
spreads  to  other  portions  of  the  pipe. 

WIRE-WOUND  INSERTED  COUPLINGS.  This  type  of  wood  pipe 
also  fails  at  the  joints,  resulting  from  a  lack  of  water  saturation 
due  to  physical  conditions.  The  joints  are  most  liable  to  attack 
by  fungus  when  the  pipe  line  deviates  from  a  straight  line,  either 
in  a  vertical  or  horizontal  direction.  It  is  at  these  joints  that 
decay  almost  always  starts. 

The  three  above  mentioned  types  of  wood  stave  pipe  when 
used  in  an  untreated  condition,  are  also  subject  to  decay  under 
the  following  conditions: 

(1)  When   pipe   line   is   under  less   than   twenty-foot   head 
hydrostatic  pressure,  or  when  pipe  is  empty  a  portion  of  the  time. 

(2)  When  pipe  line  is  buried  in  loam,  sandy  or  gravelly 
soil. 

(3)  When  vegetable  matter  comes  in  contact  with  the  staves. 

The  following  quotations  are  taken  from  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  155: 

"Based  upon  the  experience  in  Spokane,  Wash.,  the  life  of 
machine-banded  wood  pipe  is  given  as  ranging  from  4  to  12 
years.  Such  short  life  in  most  instances  is  probably  due  to  bad 
judgment  in  the  matter  of  location  or  the  use  of  pipe  under 
conditions  altogether  unfavorable  to  its  life." 

"In  contact  with  soil  the  durability  is  nearly  always  a  mat- 
ter of  some  uncertainty." 

"Contrary  to  the  theories  commonly  held  30  years  ago,  it  has 
been  found  that  the  durability  of  wood  pipe  is  usually  dependent 
on  the  life  of  the  wood  pipe  rather  than  on  the  life  of  the  bands. 


264 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


Only  in  rare  instances,  some  of  which  have  been  cited,  have  the 
bands  failed  first." 

"Where  pipes  are  to  be  placed  in  contact  with  the  soil,  and 
where  the  internal  pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  insure  complete 
saturation  of  the  staves,  it  is  probable  that  their  durability  may 
be  increased  by  treating  with  some  preservative." 

ELIMINATING  DECAY   IN  WOOD  PIPE 

There  is  no  question  but  that  a  well  creosoted  wood  stave 
pipe  will  prove  a  good  investment  under  conditions  unfavorable 
to  untreated  pipe.  The  treatment  is  not  expensive  since  the  pipe 
is  composed  of  merely  a  wooden  shell  and  does  not  require  much 
oil  per  lineal  foot  of  pipe. 

CREOSOTED  WOOD  PIPE.  The  best  creosote  treatment  for  pipe 
is  about  as  follows: 

Pipe  staves  should  be  kiln  dried  and  machined  before  treat- 
ment. Boil  in  oil  or  steam  staves  until  in  proper  condition  to 
receive  the  coal-tar  creosote.  Then  press  10  to  11  pounds  of  oil 
per  cubic  foot  into  the  wood  at  a  temperature  of  180  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  Then  release  pressure  and  heat  the  charge  in  oil  to 
a  temperature  of  230  to  240  degress  F.,  and  hold  at  this  tempera- 
ture for  one  hour.  This  final  heating  bath  expands  the  oil  and 
removes  the  excess,  thus  preventing  its  mixing  with  the  water 
later  on  when  in  service. 

The  pipe  for  use  on  the  individual  ranch,  may  after  treat- 
ment, be  buried  in  any  kind  of  soil  and  subjected  to  severe  ad-, 
verse  conditions  without  damage  by  decay.  It  so  happens  that  the 
very  point  in  the  pipe  which  is  most  subject  to  decay,  namely,  the 
end  grain  at  joints  and  couplings,  becomes  more  thoroughly  im- 
pregnated with  preservative  than  any  other  portion  of  the  stave. 
This  physical  condition  aids  greatly  in  securing  the  greatest 
durability  from  the  creosote  treatment. 

Wood  stave  pipe  used  under  unfavorable  conditions,  where  de- 
cay would  occur  in  five  or  six  years,  should,  if  properly  creosoted, 
last  20  to  25  years  and  probably  longer.  The  cost  of  the  aforemen- 
tioned treatment  is  small,  amounting  to  but  15  to  30  per  cent  of 
the  cost  of  untreated  pipe  installed  and  should  result  in  an  in- 
creased length  of  life  of  two  to  six  times  that  of  the  untreated 
pipe,  depending  upon  prevailing  conditions  of  soil,  moisture,  ex- 
posure, etc..  Creosoted  pipe  cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended, 
for  its  use  eliminates  the  uncertainties  found  in  untreated  wood 
pipe. 


265 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


FLUMES 

There  is  an  exceptionally  good  opportunity  for  the  use  of 
creosoted  wood  staves  in  flume  building.  The  conditions  for  decay 
in.  wood  pipe  previously  mentioned  apply  to  open  flumes  and 
since  it  is  not  possible  to  depend  on  water  saturation  of  the 
wood  in  open  flumes,  creosote  treatment  is  highly  recommended. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


DOUGLAS    FIR    SILOS 

Wooden  silos  are  the  least  expensive  type  of  silo  and  are  in 
more  general  use  throughout  the  country  than  any  other  form. 
As  a  result  of  a  systematic  study  of  the  good  and  bad  points  of 
the  wooden  silo,  rapid  progress  has  been  made  during  the  last  few 
years  in  perfecting  this  type. 

MATERIALS  OF  CONSTRUCTION  AND  COST 

A  great  variety  of  materials  and  forms  of  construction  have 
been  used  in  the  past  for  silos  with  varying  degrees  of  success. 
They  may  be  divided  into  four  classes,  as  follows: 

(1)  Wooden  silos; 

(2)  Metal  silos; 

(3)  Monolithic  concrete  silos; 

(4)  Block  and  concrete  stave  silos. 

The  cost  of  construction  and  maintenance  of  a  silo  is  a  very 
important  factor  in  deciding  the  type  to  purchase.  This  cost 
varies  considerably,  according  to  the  type,  classes  two  and  three 
being  by  far  the  most  expensive  and  class  one  the  least.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  approximate  cost  of  silos  of  the  various  types 
of  construction: 

Brick— Solid     Wall $450  to  $    700 


Brick— Air   spaced   hollow    wall 

Cement    Block    450 

Hollow  Tile — Cement  both   sides 450 

Stone*— Solid     wall     ...  485 


1,200 


1,000 


Stone*— Double    lined   and   air   spaced 650 

Concrete — Solid    wall — monolithic     construction 300 

Concrete— Hollow    wall— monolithic    construction 650  to     1,000 

Wooden    Stave    200  to        300 

These  figures  are  based  on  silos  of  the  same  dimensions,  and 
show  wood  to  be  the  least  expensive  material. 

The  extensive  use  of  the  wooden  silo  has  resulted  in  its 
being  subjected  to  some  of  the  most  extreme  tests.  Its  weak- 
nesses have  been  carefully  studied  in  an  effort  to  eliminate  all 
of  its  objectionable  features  and  at  the  present  time  it  is  in  very 
general  use  throughout  the  entire  country. 

There  are  very  few  species  of  wood  which  possess  the  neces- 
sary combination  of  qualities  required  for  silo  construction. 
Douglas  fir  is  especially  suited  to  this  use  since  clear  material  is 
readily  obtainable,  the  wood  is  durable  and  the  staves  are  straight 

*  No  value  placed  on  stone  except  labor. 
267 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S    ASSOCIATION 

and  strong.    Probably  more  Douglas  fir  lumber  is  used  annually 
in  silo  construction  than  any  other  species. 

The  objectionable  features  of  the  early  wooden  silos  were 
shrinkage  and  decay.  Shrinkage  occurred  during  the  warm  dry 
summer  weather,  causing  the  staves  to  become  loose  and  liable  to 
collapse  during  heavy  windstorms.  This  fault  has  been  largely 
eliminated  by  the  use  of  automatic  adjustable  hoops  which  keep  a 
constant  pressure  on  the  walls  of  the  silo. 

CREOSOTED  STAVE  SILOS 

The  use  of  creosoted  silo  staves  overcomes  the  difficulties  of 
shrinkage  in  a  different  way.  The  presence  of  oil  in  the  wood 
tends  to  minimize  volume  changes  in  the  staves. 

Decay  has  played  a  comparatively  small  part  in  reducing  the 
life  of  the  silo,  except  in  cases  where  unsuitable  species  of  wood 
have  been  used.  Decay  takes  place  most  readily  in  wood  that  is 
subject  to  alternate  wet  and  dry  conditions.  For  this  reason,  cre- 
osoted lumber  is  desirable,  since  it  retards  the  progress  of  decay, 
both  by  retarding  moisture  changes  and  by  the  antiseptic  prop- 
erties of  the  creosote. 

The  antiseptic  qualities  of  creosote  oil  are  well  known  and 
recognized.  There  have  been  considerable  and  varied  claims 
made  concerning  the  disastrous  effect  on  the  health  of  animals 
fed  with  silage  from  a  creosoted  silo.  In  order  to  determine  the 
facts  in  the  case,  the  U.  S.  Forest  Products  Laboratory  at  Madison, 
Wisconsin,  recently  conducted  an  investigation  on  this  subject, 
and  the  following  extract  is  taken  from  the  report: 

"While  but  few  of  the  experiment  stations  had  had  any  ex- 
perience with  creosoted  silos,  and  only  a  small  number  of  owners 
of  such  silos  could  be  located,  not  a  single  case  was  reported 
where  the  silage  had  been  damaged  or  the  health  or  appetite  of 
the  stock  affected.  It  was  the  general  opinion  of  the  experiment 
stations  that  no  danger  need  be  anticipated  on  this  account." 

With  the  present  methods  of  treating  Fir  lumber  it  is  possible 
to  remove  all  excess  or  free  oil  from  the  wood,  thereby  eliminat- 
ing "bleeding." 

If  it  is  not  practicable  to  purchase  a  creosoted  stave  silo,  a 
great  deal  of  good  may  be  accomplished  by  thoroughly  painting  the 
base  of  the  staves  and  the  joints  between  staves  with  hot  coal-tar 
creosote.  The  expense  of  this  operation  is  practically  nil,  and  it 
will  add  several  years  to  the  life  of  a  silo. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


PAVING    BLOCKS 

Considerable  original  data  have  been  collected  regarding  the 
effect  of  the  various  methods  of  treating  upon  the  mechanical 
strength  of  the  wood,  and  the  total  amount  of  shrinking  and 
swelling  which  takes  place  in  the  wood  when  treated  with  dif- 
ferent amounts  of  oil  per  cubic  foot.  The  following  specification 
provides  a  treatment  which  results  in  no  material  loss  in 
strength  of  the  fiber. 

"The  blocks  shall  be  placed  in  the  treating  retort  and  a  good 
grade  of  coal-tar  creosote  introduced  and  heated  to  approximately 
215  degrees  P.  for  two  to  four  hours.  The  preservative  shall 
then  be  drained  off  and  a  vacuum  of  23  to  26  inches  drawn  to 
take  out  the  surplus  oil,  vapors,  gases,  etc.,  from  the  wood  cells. 
The  vacuum  shall  then  be  broken  by  the  introduction  again  of  the 
preservative,  which  is  then  pressed  into  the  wood  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  180  degrees  P.  until  the  blocks  have  received  from  16  to  18 
pounds  of  oil  per  cubic  foot.  After  the  blocks  have  received  the 
required  amount  of  oil,  the  pressure  shall  be  released,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  oil  gradually  raised  to  215  to  230  degrees  P., 
and  held  for  one  hour.  This  final  heating  expands  the  oil,  va- 
pors and  gases  within  the  wood,  and  causes  a  certain  amount  of 
the  preservative  to  be  expelled,  due  to  this  expansion,  and  also 
effects  further  seasoning  of  the  wood.  A  final  vacuum  of  23  to  26 
inches  shall  then  be  drawn,  which  dries  the  blocks  of  the  surplus 
surface  oil,  leaving  a  thoroughly  impregnated  block  which  will 
never  'bleed'  after  being  placed  in  the  street,  since  it  is  forced  to 
do  its  'bleeding'  during  the  treatment." 

Figures  obtained  from  tests  on  commercial  material  indicate 
the  loss  in  strength  of  the  fiber  due  to  this  treatment  to  be  no 
more  than  2  to  5  per  cent,  which,  from  a  practical  point  of  view, 
may  be  entirely  neglected.  The  Association  has  done  some  care- 
ful experimenting  to  determine  as  nearly  as  possible  what  effects 
different  amounts  of  oil  have  on  the  swelling  and  shrinking  under 
extreme  conditions.  Results  of  these  and  other  experiments  in- 
dicate that  the  thoroughness  of  penetration  plays  an  important 
part  in  reducing  volume  changes.  For  example,  blocks  treated 
with  17  pounds  of  oil  per  cubic  foot,  which  amount  is  afterwards 
reduced  to  12  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  have  the  same  properties 
when  put  to  the  soaking  test  as  blocks  which  are  treated  with 
17  pounds  of  oil,  all  of  which  is  left  in  the  wood.  The  swelling 
takes  place  in  the  more  lightly  treated  block  at  a  slightly  more 


269 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


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PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


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THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

rapid  rate  at  first  than  in  the  block  with  the  larger  quantity  of 
oil.  In  both  cases  it  lasts  through  a  long  period  of  time.  From 
a  practical  point  of  view,  it  is  as  easy  to  take  care  of  the  swell- 
ing in  one  case  as  in  the  other. 

The  material  upon  which  the  above  mentioned  tests  were 
made,  was  selected  to  represent  average  commercial  stock.  Six 
planks  were  taken  from  as  many  logs  and  each  cut  into  blocks. 
One  block  from  each  plank  was  used  in  each  treatment  shown  in 
table  34.  Due  to  this  fact,  the  material  in  all  treatments  was  simi- 
lar and  the  results  are  comparable.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
creosote  treatment  reduces  the  possible  amount  of  swelling  ap- 
proximately 35  per  cent.  Comparing  figures,  column  6,  under  ref- 
erence numbers  1  and  5,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  total  change  in 
blocks  treated  green  with  approximately  14  pounds  of  oil  is 
slightly  greater  than  in  air-seasoned  blocks  treated  with  the  same 
amount  of  preservative.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  a 
less  perfect  coating  of  the  cell  walls  is  obtained  with  this  amount 
of  oil  in  the  green  blocks  than  in  those  seasoned  before  treatment, 
and  indicates  that  green  blocks  should  receive  initial  absorption 
of  more  than  14  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  The  ideal  treatment  is 
to  give  a  gross  absorption  sufficient  to  paint  thoroughly  the  cell 
walls  of  the  wood  and  afterwards  reduce  this  absorption  to  10  to 
12  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Blocks  treated  in  this  manner  will  be 
largely  relieved  of  their  tendency  to  shrink  and  swell  and  will 
not  bleed  under  street  conditions.  Reducing  the  absorption  in 
accordance  with  the  above  produces  a  better  block  at  a  lower 
cost.  The  treatment  of  blocks  with  12  pounds  per  cubic  foot  as 
against  17  pounds  represents  a  saving  of  approximately  15  cents 
per  square  yard,  which,  in  view  of  the  results,  is  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. 

Creosoted  Douglas  fir  paving  blocks  are  gradually  coming 
into  more  general  use  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  City  of  Seattle 
up  to  1915  had  laid  practically  no  wood  block  pavements.  This 
city,  together  with  the  Port  of  Seattle  Commission,  laid  more  than 
20,000  square  yards  of  creosoted  Douglas  fir  blocks  in  1915.  Dia- 
gram 21  shows  the  number  of  yards  of  creosoted  wood  blocks 
laid  in  Pacific  Coast  cities  since  1908  and  indicates  the  increased 
tendency  to  use  this  type  of  pavement. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


FENCE  POSTS  AND  POLES 

Cedar  is  the  most  durable  of  Pacific  Coast  timber  when  used 
in  the  natural  condition.  Cedar  posts  or  poles  in  normal  locations 
are  very  durable;  however,  under  certain  adverse  conditions, 
they  succumb  to  the  attack  of  fungus.  Both  red  cedar  and  Doug 
las  fir  may  be  materially  improved  when  used  for  poles  and  posts 
by  giving  them  preservative  treatment. 

FENCE  POSTS 

Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  decay  characteristic  in  fence 
posts.  The  fungus,  to  thrive,  must  have  food,  warmth,  moisture 
and  air.  Food  and  moisture  are  found  in  abundance  in  the  wood. 
The  other  essentials  are  present  through  a  large  portion  of  the 
year  in  practically  all  climates  in  the  United  States.  Rain  soaks 
the  ground  all  around  the  post  and  dries  out  slowly,  thus  making 
the  moisture  condition  favorable  for  fungus  growth,  which 
accounts  for  its  rapid  development  at  this  point. 

The  average  layman  has  no  conception  as  to  the  amount  of 
lumber  which  is  cut  into  fence  posts  annually.  White  oak,  lo- 
cust, Osage  orange,  and  cedar  have  in  the  past  stood  at  the  head 
of  the  list  in  their  ability  to  resist  decay  when  used  in  a  natural 
condition.  Before  preservation  became  so  well  established  these 
species  were  used  very  largely  for  posts  in  all  portions  of  the 
United  States.  The  development  of  the  creosoting  industry,  how- 
ever, is  changing  past  practice.  When  proper  treatment  is  applied, 
all  species  are  practically  of  equal  durability.  The  following  quo- 
tation is  taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Circular  No.  209,  page 
15,  number  6: 

"Species  which,  when,  untreated,  decay  most  rapidly  appear 
to  give  the  greatest  relative  increase  in  service  when  treated. 
Loblolly  pine,  hemlock,  beech  and  tamarack,  which  are  the  least 
resistant  to  decay  when  untreated,  appear  when  treated  to  be 
equally  as  durable  as  treated  longleaf  pine,  Spanish  oak  and 
white  oak." 

This  makes  it  possible  how  to  get  good  service  out  of  wood 
which  formerly  would  not  have  received  any  consideration.  Ex- 
periments have  been  made  on  creosoted  posts  of  some  of  the 
least  durable  woods  found  in  the  United  States.  These  species 
have  given  good  service  for  five  years  and  are  still  sound.  These 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

same  posts,  if  set  in  a  natural  condition  would  have  to  be  re- 
placed on  account  of  decay  in  two  or  three  years.  There  is  no 
question  now  but  that  a  fence  post  when  properly  creosoted  will 
last  three  to  four  times  as  long  as  a  similar  untreated  post.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  the  less  durable  species. 

The  U.  S.  Forest  Service  has  used  a  great  many  creosoted 
fence  posts.  Mr.  Benedict,  a  forest  supervisor  at  Hailey,  Idaho, 
has  recently  used  500  lodgepole  pine  posts.  This  species  is  one 
of  the  least  decay-resisting  woods  in  the  United  States  when 
used  in  a  natural  condition.  The  following  quotation  is  taken 
from  the  March,  1915,  number  of  "American  Forestry,"  page  200, 
and  shows  what  Mr.  Benedict  expects  from  treated  lodgepole  pine 
posts : 

"In  the  ground,  lodgepole  pine  untreated  rots  quickly.  Given 
a  bath  in  hot  creosote  from  the  bottom  to  a  point  above  the 
ground  line  when  set  sufficiently  to  penetrate  the  outermost  layers 
of  the  -sapwood  and  all  the  openings  through  which  decay  could 
enter,  the  post  should  last  from  12  to  20  years." 

A  Douglas  fir  heartwood  post,  without  treatment,  under  con- 
ditions prevailing  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  will  last  from  five  to  six 
years.  A  similar  post  well  creosoted,  may  be  expected  to  last 
from  15  to  25  years. 

If  posts  are  creosoted,  a  smaller  post  may  be  used  than  is  the 
usual  custom.  This  is  possible  since  it  is  not  necessary  to  figure 
on  the  usual  deterioration. 

Creosoted  posts  do  not  require  painting  since  the  creosote 
gives  the  same  effect  as  a  brown  stain.  They  can,  however,  if 
desired,  be  painted  green,  red  or  any  dark  color. 

POLES 

Poles,  as  in  the  case  of  posts,  may  be  made  durable  by  pre- 
servative treatment.  Some  poles  are  put  up  for  temporary  serv- 
ice and  in  such  cases  it  would  not  be  economy  to  treat  them  un- 
less they  would  be  removed  and  reset  after  serving  in  a  tempor- 
ary way.  Poles  for  permanent  use  should,  however,  be  given  a 
thorough  treatment  before  they  are  placed,  which  will  give  them 
fully  twice  the  length  of  life  secured  from  an  untreated  pole. 

Figures  12  and  13,  taken  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service  Bulletin 
No.  83,  show  an  untreated  Southern  white  cedar  pole  to  be  badly 
decayed  after  four  years  of  service,  and  a  creosoted  loblolly  pine 
pole  with  no  sign  of  decay  after  18  years. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


Fig.  12.     Untreated   pole  of  Southern  White  Cedar   (Char 
aecyparis  Thyoldes)    after  four  years'   service. 


275 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


FIgr.  13.     Creosoted   Loblolly    pine    pole   after    18    yes 
service.      No  sign  of  decay. 


276 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


The  greatest  profit  will  result  from  the  use  of  treated  poles 
in  localities  where  the  initial  cost  of  the  pole  is  high  and  also 
where  replacements  are  expensive.  Under  such  conditions,  poles 
should  never  be  placed  without  an  efficient  preservative  treat- 
ment. In  fact  any  pole  which  is  intended  for  permanent  service 
should  have  a  butt  treatment  with  creosote. 

The  following  quotations  are  taken  from  page  40  of  U.  S. 
Forest  Service  Bulletin  No.  84,  and  show  the  advisability  of  cre- 
osoting  poles: 

"Preservative  treatment  is  profitable  financially,  the  increased 
durability  of  the  time  decreasing  the  annual  service  charge.  Rel- 
atively greater  benefits  are  derived  from  the  treatment  of  non- 
durable woods  than  from  the  treatment  of  those  which  possess 
great  natural  durability." 

"Preservative  treatment  makes  possible  the  use  of  poles  of 
smaller  butt  circumference,  since  allowance  usually  made  for 
deterioration  by  decay  need  not  be  considered,  when  it  is  certain 
that  the  full  size  and  strength  of  the  poles  will  be  retained 
through  a  long  period  of  years." 

A  creosoted  pole  line  is  much  less  apt  to  suffer  damage  from 
a  sleet  storm  than  one  built  of  untreated  poles,  since  untreated 
poles  decay  at  the  ground  line,  the  point  of  greatest  stress. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


RED   CEDAR   SHINGLES 

The  physical  characteristics  of  red  cedar  make  it  particularly 
adaptable  to  uses  where  durability  and  light  weight  are  re- 
quired, rather  than  tensile  strength.  Besides  being  practically 
immune  from  decay,  this  wood  undergoes  comparatively  little 
shrinkage  and  swelling  due  to  changes  in  moisture  condition,  and 
it  holds  paint  well.  The  wood  is  soft  and  is  not  easily  split  by 
nails.  These  combined  qualities  place  red  cedar  foremost  as  a 
shingle  material.  Approximately  85  per  cent  of  Pacific  Coast  red 
cedar  is  manufactured  into  shingles. 

The  following  method  of  laying  red  cedar  shingles,  taken, 
with  slight  changes,  from  the  American  Lumberman  of  November 
27,  1915,  unquestionably  represents  first-class  practice. 

CORRECT  METHOD  OF  LAYING  RED  CEDAR  SHINGLES 

"The  first  essential  is  good  Red  Cedar  shingles. 

For  rafters  use  sized  2x4s  or  2x6s,  spaced  on  not  over  two-foot 
centers,  spiked  solid  and  braced  as  load  requires. 

For  roof  boards  or  sheathing  use  good  material.  SIS  strips 
1x4  inches  or  random  widths  to  not  more  than  eight  inches, 
spaced  not  more  than  two  inches  apart  and  nailed  solid  with  8d 
nails. 

PREPARATION  OF  SHINGLES.  If  they  are  to  be  stained  use  dry 
shingles,  dipping  each  one  in  the  stain  not  less  than  eight  inches 
from  butt.  Shingles  that  are  not  to  be  stained  should  be  wet 
thoroughly  before  laying. 

If  additional  fire-resistant  quality  is  wanted,  dip  in  good 
quality  of  mineral  paint  or  such  other  approved  fire-resistant 
treatment  as  may  be  available. 

SHINGLE  NAIL.  Solid  copper,  solid  zinc  or  hot-dipped  zinc-' 
coated  nails  preferred.  Where  these  are  not  available  use  old- 
fashioned  cut  nails. 

SIZE  OF  NAIL.  For  5  to  2  inches  or  thinner  shingles,  3d;  for 
thicker  shingles,  4d. 

LAYING  THE  SHINGLES.  Start  at  eaves  and  lay  first  coarse 
2-ply,  giving  first  course  2  inches  projection  over  crown  mold  and 
1-inch  projection  at  gables. 

On  one-third  or  more  pitch  lay  16-inch  shingles  4^  inches 
to  the  weather;  on  less  than  one-third  pitch  lay  16-inch  shingles 


278 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


4  inches  to  the  weather.  On  one-third  or  more  pitch  lay  18-inch 
shingles  5%  inches  to  the  weather;  on  less  than  one-third  pitch 
lay  18-inch  shingles  4%  inches  to  the  weather. 

Use  a  straight  edge  to  make  sure  courses  are  laid  straight. 
Break  all  joints  at  least  114  inches,  seeing  that  no  break  comes 
directly  over  another  on  any  three  consecutive  courses,  thereby 
covering  all  nails. 

Nail  shingles  6  inches  from  butt  (for  4J/4  inch  lap)  and 
i/ij-inch  from  sides,  and  put  only  two  nails  in  each  shingle. 
Shingle  wider  than  10  inches  should  be  split. 

Lay  shingles  so  that  water  will  run  with  the  grain,  and  do 
not  drive  nail  heads  into  shingles. 

Lay  wet  shingles  with  butts  close  together.  Leave  %-inch 
space  between  dry  shingles. 

Use  14-inch  galvanized  iron,  not  less  than  26-gauge,  or  best 
quality  old-style  tin,  heavily  coated,  for  valleys;  copper  or  gal- 
vanized iron  for  ridge  roll. 

Use  galvanized  or  heavily  coated  tin  flashing  around  chim- 
neys. If  tin  is  used  it  should  be  painted  two  coats,  one  as  soon 
as  roof  is  completed  and  the  second  coat  within  two  weeks.  Gal- 
vanized metal  should  be  painted  two  coats  but  should  be  given 
30  days  for  oxidation  before  painting.  No  patent  dryer  or  tur- 
pentine should  be  used. 

Finish  hips  by  laying  a  course  of  even  width  narrow  shingles 
on  both  sides  of  hip  over  regular  courses." 


279 


THK    WEST    COAST    LUMBKKMICX'S     ASSOCIATION 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


Fig.  17. 


Figures  14  to  17  show  four  distinct  styles  of  laying  shingle 
siding. 

GRADING  RULES  FOR  SHINGLES 

Some  very  decided   improvements  have  recently  been  made 

in  the  grading  of  Red  Cedar  shingles.  It  is  possible  now  for  the 

purchaser  to  obtain  branded  shingles.  This  branding  guarantees 
quality. 

GRADING  RULES  FOR  RED  CEDAR  SHINGLES  WHICH  HAVE  BEEN  IN 
GENERAL  USE  SINCE  1908 

PERFECTION.  18".  Variation  of  I",  under  or  over,  in  length, 
allowed  in  10  per  cent.  Random  widths,  but  not  narrower  than 
3".  When  dry  20  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  8%".  To  be 
well  manufactured.  Ninety-seven  per  cent  to  be  clear,  remaining 
3  per  cent  admits  slight  defects  16"  or  over  from  butt. 

PUGET  A.  18".  Random  widths,  but  not  narrower  than  2". 
When  dry,  20  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  8^4".  Admits 
feather  tips  and  16"  shingles  resulting  from  shims,  and  other 
defects  8"  or  over  from  butt. 

EUREKA.  18".  Variation  of  1",  under  or  over,  in  length 
allowed  in  10  per  cent.  Random  widths,  but  not  narrower  than 
3".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  9%".  To  be 
well  manufactured.  Ninety  per  cent  to  be  clear,  remaining  10 
per  cent  admit  slight  defects  14"  or  over  from  butt. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 

SKAGIT-A.  18".  Random  widths,  but  not  narrower  than 
2".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  9^4".  Will 
admit  feather  tips,  and  16"  shingles  resulting  from  shims,  and 
other  defects  8"  or  over  from  butt. 

EXTRA  CLEAR.  16".  Variation  of  1",  under  or  over,  in 
length,  allowed  in  10  per  cent.  Random  widths,  but  not  narrower 
than  2%".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  91/-/'. 
To  be  well  manufactured,  90  per  cent  to  be  clear,  remaining  10 
per  cent  admits  slight  defects  12"  or  over  from  butt. 

CHOICE  A.  16".  Random  widths,  but  not  narrower  than 
2".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  9".  Admits 
wane  and  12"  shingles  resulting  from  shims,  and  other  defects 
6"  or  over  from  butt. 

EXTRA  *A*.  16".  Variation  of  1",  under  or  over,  in  length 
allowed  in  10  per  cent.  Random  widths.  But  not  narrower  than 
2".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  7%".  To  be 
well  manufactured.  Eighty  per  cent  to  be  clear,  remaining  20 
per  cent  admits  defects  10"  or  over  from  butt.  If  not  to  exceed 
2  per  cent  (in  the  20  pen  cent  allowing  defects  10"  from  butt) 
shows  defects  closer  than  10",  the  shingles  shall  be  considered  up 
to  grade. 

STANDARD  A.  16".  Random  widths,  but  not  narrower  than 
2".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  7V-»".  Admits 
wane  and  12"  shingles  resulting  from  shims,  and  other  defects 
6"  or  over  from  butt. 

PACKING 

All  shingles  to  be  packed  in  regulation  frame  20"  in  width. 

Openings  shall  not  average  more  than  iy<>"  to  the  course. 

Perfection  and  Puget  A  shall  be  packed  20-20  courses  to  the 
bunch,  5  bunches  to  the  M. 

Eureka,  Skagit  A,  Extra  Clear,  Choice  A,  Extra  *A*,  Stan- 
dard A  (dimension  shingles  excepted)  shall  be  packed  25-25 
courses  to  the  bunch,  4  bunches  to  the  M. 

Dimension  shingles  (5")  shall  be  packed  24-24  courses  to  the 
bunch,  4  bunches  to  the  M. 

The  character  "M"  indicates  the  multiple  or  unit  by  which 
red  cedar  shingles  are  bought  and  sold. 

Every  bunch  shall  be  branded  with  full  name  of  the  grade 
as  stated  in  these  rules. 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


Color  of  wood  and  sound  sap  shall  not  be  considered  defects. 
Percentage,  when  specified  in  these  rules,  applies  in  a  gen- 
eral way  to  the  total  amount  of  shingles  of  like  grade  in  a  car. 

GRADING  RULE  ADOPTED  BY  THE   SHINGLE  BRANCH  OF  THE  WEST 

COAST  LUMBERMEN'S  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SHINGLES 

BEARING  RITE-GRADE  TRADEMARK 

18"  RITE-GKADE  PERFECTS.  Random  widths  but  not  narrower 
than  3".  When  dry,  20  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  8%". 
To  be  strictly  clear  and  vertical  grain  and  free  from  sap. 

18"  RITE-GRADE  SELECTS.  Random  widths  but  not  narrower 
than  3".  When  dry,  20  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  8%". 
Eighty  per  cent  to  be  clear,  remaining  20  per  cent  admits  defects 
12"  or  over  from  butt.  To  be  free  from  sap. 

16"  RITE-GRADE  PERFECTS.  Random  widths  but  not  narrower 
than  3".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  9K>"- 
To  be  strictly  clear  and  vertical  grain  and  free  from  sap. 

16"  RITE-GRADE  SELECTS.  Random  widths  but  not  narrower 
than  3".  When  dry,  25,  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  9W. 
Eighty  per  cent  to  be  clear,  remaining  20  per  cent  admits  defects 
10"  or  over  from  butt.  To  be  free  from  sap. 

16"  RITE-GRADE  PERFECTS  6/2.  Random  widths,  but  not  nar- 
rower than  3".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than 
8".  To  be  strictly  clear  and  vertical  grain  and  free  from  sap. 

16"  RITE-GRADE  EXTRA  *A*.  Random  widths,  but  not  narrower 
than  3".  When  dry,  25  courses  to  measure  not  less  than  8". 
Eighty  per  cent  to  be  clear,  remaining  20  per  cent  admits  defects 
10"  or  over  from  butt.  To  be  free  from  sap. 

16"  DIMENSIONS  RITE-GRADE.  5"  wide.  Made  under  specifica- 
tions for  above  16"  grades  but  must  be  strictly  clear. 

PACKING 

All  shingles  must  be  well  manufactured. 

18"  Rite-Grade  shall  be  packed  20-20  courses  to  the  bunch,  5 
bunches  to  the  M. 

16"  Rite-Grade  shall  be  packed  25-25  courses  to  the  bunch,  4 
bunches  to  the  M. 

Dimension  Rite-Grade  shall  be  packed  24-24  courses  to  the 
Hinch,  4  bunches  to  the  M. 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S.    ASSOCIATION 

All  shingles  to  be  packed  in  regulation  frame  20"  in  width. 
Band  sticks  not  less  than  19  M>"  long. 

Openings  shall  not  average  more  than  l1/^"  to  the  course. 

Every  bunch  shall  be  branded  with  full  name  of  the  grade 
as  stated  in  these  rules. 

Color  of  wood  is  not  a  defect. 

All  shingles  to  be  packed  in  straight  courses. 

One  inch  under  and  over  in  length  admitted. 

Any  shingle  not  over  %"  off  parallel  shall  be  considered 
parallel. 

Not  over  4  per  cent  off  grade  admitted  for  discrepancy  in  in- 
spection. 

(Percentage,  when  specified  in  these  rules,  applies  in  a  gen- 
eral way  to  the  total  amount  of  shingles  of  like  grade  in  a  car. 
The  character  "M"  indicates  the  multiple  or  unit  by  which  these 
shingles  are  bought  and  sold.) 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


SUBJECT  INDEX 

Beams — 

Area  Cross  Section- —  Page 

Rough   Size  70 

Surfaced    Size    70 

Bending    Moments    63.  225 

Design    67 

Deflections     .' 62,    70 

Moment    of    Inertia 70 

Multiplying  Factors 68,    70 

Properties    68 

Ratio    Span    to   Depth   Ifh 70 

Resisting    Moments    .-. 225 

Safe   Total   Loads 68 

Safe  Total  Loads  Limited  by  Horizontal   Shear 215 

Section   Modulus   70 

Shear — 

Horizontal     17,    70 

Vertical    63,  215 

Strength    (see   Strength) 

Volume   Division   for   Grading  Rulea 30 

Weight— 

Per  Cubic   Foot 15 

Per    Lineal     Foot 70,  239 

Bending    Moments — Beams 63,  225 

Blocks    (See  Paving:  Blocks) 

Board   Measure 239,  241 

Buildings,  Mill- 
Construction    244 

Cost 249 

Durability 244 

Insurance   Rates   253 

Cedar,  Western  Bed- 
Lumber 11 

Shingles    278 

Clear  Wood — 

Strength     22,    26 

Columns — 

I'A  for  Various  Heights 234 

Safe  Loads    (Form.    Amer.    Ry.    Eng.    Assn.) 234 

Safe  Loads   (Form.  U.   S.   Dept.   of  Agri.   For.    Div.)  236 

Strength     19 

Working  Unit  Stresses   (Form.   Amer.   Ry.   Eng.     Assn.) 229,  231 

Working  Unit  Stresses   (Form.   U.   S.   Dept.  of    Agri.,    For.    Div...230,  232 

Creosoting  Douglas   Fir — 

Boiling    Process 37 

Boiling  Under   a   Vacuum    Process 37 

Bridge   Stringers  38 

Spike   Pulling  Tests .' 58 

Ties 49 

Flumes    266 


285 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S     ASSOCIATION 


Page 

Paving  Blocks  

269 

Piling   

258 

Pipe     ,  

265 

Poles     

274 

Posts     

273 

Silos    -.  

268 

Steaming  Process   

37 

Deflection- 

Beams  (See  Beams) 

Floors    (See  Floors) 

Formulae    (See    Formulae) 

Design  of   Rectangular  Beams  

67 

Diagonal  Grain  

31 

Docks    '.  •.... 

258 

Douglas  Fir    (See  Fir) 

Fir,  Douglas  — 

Amount    Cut  —  1913  

6 

Bridge  and  Trestle  Timbers  

9 

Car   Material 

10 

Creosoting    (See  Creosoting  Douglas  Fir) 

Distribution  of  Cut  in  U.   S.,    1913  

8 

Finish   .'  

10 

Flooring     

10 

House   Construction    Material  

10 

Paving  Blocks  

11 

Piling   

9 

Ties   

9 

Floors  — 

Laminated  — 

Area    of    Section 

222 

Maximum    Deflections   

222 

Maximum  Spans   . 

222 

Moment    of    Inertia 

222 

Section    Modulus  

222 

Weight   per   Sq.    Ft  

222 

Mill- 

Area    of   Section  .                 

220 

Maximum   Deflections    

220 

Maximum    Spans 

'20 

Moment    of    Inertia 

220 

Section   Modulus 

220 

Weight   per   Sq.    Ft  

220 

Formulae— 

For  Columns  — 

Working  Unit  Stresses  — 

American   Railway  Engineering  Association  

229,     231 

U.   S.   Dept.   of  Agriculture,   Forestry  Division  

230,      232 

For   Floors  — 

Maximum  Deflections  —  Mill   and  Laminated  

63 

Maximum    Spans  —  Mill    and   Laminated  

62 

PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


For   Rectangular   Beams —  Page 

Bending    Moments    63 

Maximum    Deflections    62 

Safe  Loads  Limited  by  Horizontal  Shear 61 

Safe   Loads    (Considering   Bending   Only) 61 

Shear- 
Maximum    Unit    Horizontal    Shear 60 

Vertical    63 

(iruding  Rules- 
Structural    Timbers 

No.    1    Common 29 

Selected    Common    '. 29 

Selected    Structural    ; 31 

Shingles,   Western   Red   Cedar — 

In    Use   Since    190S 281 

Adopted   by    Shingle   Branch — West   Coast   Lumbermen's   Assn.  283 

Grain— Diagonal   31 

Hemlock,  Western — 

Barrels   13 

Boxes 13 

Bridge    and    Trestle    Timbers 12 

Crossties     12 

Finishing 13 

Flooring     12 

Piling    12 

Poles   12 

Strength     14 

Structural   Uses  ., 12 

Holding  Power  of   Spikes 58 

Horizontal   Shear  17,   70 

Joist   Construction — 

Board    Measure 238 

Weight 238 

Kiln  Drying 36 

Knots- 
Encased    Knot 31 

Loose  Knot 31 

Rotten    Knot    31 

Sound    and    Tight    Knot 31 

Laminated   Floors    222 

Loads   (See  Safe  Loads) 
Lumber — 

Cut   in    Oregon   and   Washington,    1913 6 

Cut  in  United  States  in   1913 6 

Distribution   of   Douglas   Fir   and   Associated   Species 8 

Mill    I tn i Minus    (See   Buildings) 

Mill  Floors   : --. 220 

Mine   limbers    , 19 

Moisture — 

Effect    on    Strength 22 

Moments,   Bending  or  Resisting 63,  226 


THE    WEST    COAST    LUMBERMEN'S    ASSOCIATION 


Moment   of  Inertia —  .  Page 

Beams     70 

Laminated    Floors    222 

Mill    Floors    220 

Paving  Blocks — 

Amount  Laid 272 

Creosoting     269 

Swelling     269 

Perforating— 

Effect   on   Penetration 54 

Effect    on    Strength 54 

Machine     50 

Spacing   of   Holes 54 

Piling— 

Creosoted    Pile    Docks 258 

Specification 

For    Creosoting 255 

For    Temporary    Use 25S 

Pipe,  Wood  Stave- 
Causes    of    Decay 263 

Creosoted   Wood   Pipe 265 

Eliminating    Decay    ,. ..  265 


Creosoting   274 

Posts— 

Creosoting  273 

Strength     1 9 

Preservation    (See  Creosoting  Douglas  Fir) 

Properties  of  Timber — 

Mechanical   and    Physical    (See   Strength) 

Red  Cedar — Western   (See  Cedar) 

Resisting    Moments    225 

Rules — Grading    (See  Grading  Rules) 

Safe  Loads — 

Beams 68 

Columns 229 

Section  Modulus — 

Beams     70 

Laminated    Floors    222 

Mill   Floors   220 

Shear- 
Horizontal     17 

Vertical    63,    215 

Shingles,  Western  Red  Cedar — 

Correct   Method    of   Laying 278 

Grading  Rules   281,     283 

Silos- 
Cost     , 267 

Creosoted   Wood    Stave 268 

Materials    for   Construction 267 

Sitka    Spruce   13 


288 


PACIFIC    COAST    WOODS 


Spikes — 

Holding  Power —  Page 

Common 58 

Screw    „ 58 

Spruce— Sitka    13 

Standing   Timber   Supply. 6 

Strength — 

Clear   Wood    22 

Effect  of  Moisture 22 

Posts     19 

Structural   Timbers — 

Air   Seasoned   16 

Effect    of    Creosoting 38 

Effect    of    Knots •. 30 

Green    15 

Relation    to    Dry   Weight 26 

Relative,    of    Various    Species ,.  14 

Ties- 
Effect    of    Creosoting 50 

Effect    of    Perforating 54 

Stresses — 

Recommended  Working  Unit — 
Buildings — 

Portland    34 

Seattle    34 

West    Coast    Lumbermen's    Association 34 

Columns — 

American   Railway   Engineering  Association 229,  231 

U.   S.   Dept.   of  Agriculture,  Forestry  Division 230,  232 

Summerwood      31 

Swelling    Tests — Paving    Blocks 269 

Timber- 
Amount   of  Douglas  Fir 6 

Amount  of  Other  Pacific  Coast   Species 6 

Supply    of    Oregon    and    Washington 6 

Supply   of   United    States. 6 

Unit    Stresses — Working    (See    Stresses) 

Vertical    Shear    63,  215 

Volumes    of    Beam 30 

Weight- 
Douglas    Fir    Beams — 

Air    Seasoned 239 

Green 70,  239 

Joists    238 

Laminated    Floors    222 

Mill    Floors   „ 220 

Various    Species — 

Oven    Dry    15 

Western    Hemlock 11 

Western    Red    Cedar 11 

Western    Spruce    13 

Wood  Stave  Pipe  (See  Pipe) 
Working  Unit   Stresses    (See   Stresses) 


THE 

UMVERS.   ",. 
LOS  Ai 


IFORNIA 


000715348    9 


TA 
420 
G69s 
cop. 2 

Engineering 
Libniy 


JJL72 


